印欧语系及文化(Indo-European and Culture)英汉双语本(中译本,中文版)

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语言间关系的研究与比较法(The Study of Language Relationships and the Comparative Method)

1.1. All languages are similar in certain ways, but some similarities are more striking and interesting than others. Consonants, vowels, words, phrases, sentences, and their ilk are fundamental structural units common to all forms of human speech; by contrast, identical or near-identical words for the same concept are not, and when two or more languages share such words, it attracts notice. This kind of resemblance can have several sources, which must be clearly distinguished from one another in order to investigate similarities between languages scientifically.

1.1所有语言都在某些方面相似，但是有些相似点相比其它更加突出和有趣。辅音、元音、单词、短语、句子，诸如此类基本结构单元为所有人类语言形式共有。相比之下，相同概念的相同单词或接近相同的单词则不然，当两种或更多的语言共有此类单词时，则会引起注意。这种相似性可以有多个来源，为了科学地研究语言之间的相似性，必须把它们明确地区分开来。

The first source for such resemblance is chance. There are only so many sounds that the human vocal tract can produce, and their possible combinations are also limited. These facts conspire to create a certain number of words that coincidentally resemble one another in any two languages picked at random. The Greek and Latin words for 'god', theόs and deus, are of this kind; they have no historical relationship with one another.

这种相似性的第一个来源是偶然(chance)。人类声道能发出的声音有限，其可能的组合也很有限。这些事实共同创造了一定数量的单词，这些单词在随机挑选的两种语言中都很巧合地相互相似。希腊语和拉丁语中的 "god"—–theόs和deus，就属于这种情况；它们之间没有历史关系。

A second source of such similarity is borrowing. People speaking different languages are often in contact with one another, and this contact typically leads to mutual borrowing (adoption) of both cultural and linguistic material. English, for example, has borrowed the Inuit (Eskimo) word iglu 'house' for a type of shelter (igloo).

这种相似性的第二个来源是借用(borrowing)。讲不同语言的人经常相互接触，这种接触通常会导致文化和语言材料的相互借用(borrowing, adoption)。例如，英语借用了因纽特人(爱斯基摩人)的iglu '屋子' 一词来表示一种住所(igloo,冰屋)。

A third source of similarity is a sundry collection of language universals; these are basic characteristics of human linguistic creativity that are found the world over. Two common examples are onomatopoeia or sound-symbolism (whereby words sound like what they mean, such as English cuckoo and German Kuckuck, names based on imitation of the bird's cry), and nursery or baby-talk words for kinship terms, which typically contain syllables like ma, ba, da, and ta (compare English Ma with Mandarin Chinese mā 'mother').

第三个相似性的来源是各种语言共相(language universals)的集合；这些是人类语言创造力的基本特征，在世界各地都可以找到。两个常见的例子是拟声构词(onomatopoeia)或拟声现象(sound symbolism) （即词语听起来像它们的意思，如英语的cuckoo和德语的Kuckuck，这些名字是基于对鸟的叫声的模仿），以及亲属称谓(kinship term)的儿童词汇(nursery word)或婴儿式语言(baby-talk)词汇，它们通常包含ma、ba、da和ta等音节（将英语的Ma与汉语的mā "母亲 "相比较）。

1.2. Sometimes, however, languages present similarities in their vocabulary that cannot be attributed to any of these sources. To take a concrete example, consider the words for the numerals 1-10 in Spanish, Italian, French, and Portuguese:

1.2. 然而，有时语言在其词汇中呈现出的相似性并不能归因于任何这些来源。举个具体的例子，考虑一下西班牙语、意大利语、法语和葡萄牙语中数字1-10的词汇。

	Spanish	Italian	French	Portuguese
1	uno	uno	un	um
2	dos	due	deux	dois
3	tres	tre	trois	três
4	cuatro	quattro	quatre	quatro
5	cinco	cinque	cinq	cinco
6	seis	sei	six	seis
7	siete	sette	sept	sete
8	ocho	otto	huit	oito
9	nueve	nove	neuf	nove
10	diez	dieci	dix	dez

The striking similarities in each row attract immediate attention and demand an explanation. Chance seems well-nigh impossible. There is also no connection between the sounds of these words and their meanings, which rules out onomatopoeia; nor are other linguistic universals such as baby-talk relevant. A third possibility is that one or more of the languages borrowed its numerals from one of the other languages, or that they all borrowed them from some outside source. It is true that there are languages that have borrowed the names of some or all numbers from other languages, as Japanese did from Chinese. But if we look a bit further afield, we notice that the numerals are not the only words evincing such strong mutual resemblance:

每行的惊人相似立即引起了我们的注意，并且需要解释。偶然(chance)似乎几乎不可能。这些词的声音和它们的含义之间也没有联系，这就排除了拟声构词(onomatopoeia)的可能；也没有其他语言普通性(linguistic universals)的可能，如婴儿式语言(baby-talk)。第三种可能是，一种或多种语言从其他语言中借用(borrowing)其数字，或者它们都从某种外部来源借用了数字。的确，有一些语言从其他语言中借用了部分或所有数字的名称，就像日语从汉语中借用的那样。但是，如果我们看得更远一点，就会发现，数字并不是唯一表现出如此强烈的相互相似性的词汇。

		Spanish	Italian	French	Portuguese
(1)	‘two’	dos	due	deux	dois
	‘ten’	diez	dieci	dix	dez
	‘tooth’	diente	dente	dent	dente
	‘of’	de	di	de	de
	‘they sleep’	duermen	dormono	dorment	dormem
(2)	‘am’	soy	sono	suis	sou
	‘you (sing.) are’	eres	sei	es	és
	‘is’	es	è	est	é
	‘we are’	somos	siamo	sommes	somos
	‘you (pl.) are’	sois	siete	êtes	sois
	‘they are’	son	sono	sont	são

We see that not just the words for 'two' and 'ten', but all the other words in group (1) above agree in beginning with d- in each language. It is rather uncommon for basic terms like 'tooth', 'of', and 'sleep' to be borrowed, and even more uncommon for three languages to have borrowed them from a fourth, or for all four of them to have borrowed these words from a fifth language. The forms in (2) show that the whole present tense of the verb 'to be' is similar across all four languages, and in very specific ways. It is extremely unlikely that a language (to say nothing of four languages) would borrow wholesale a complete verbal paradigm from another language, especially one as basic as this one - and one that, as it happens, is highly irregular in nearly the same way in each language.

我们看到，不仅是'two'和'ten'的单词，而且上述第(1)组的所有其他单词在每种语言中都是以d-开头。像'tooth', 'of' 和 'sleep'这样的基本术语被借用是相当不常见的，而三种语言从第四种语言中借用，或者所有四种语言都从第五种语言中借用这些词，就更加不常见了。(2)中的形式表明，动词 "to be "的整个现在时态在所有四种语言中都是相似的，而且是以非常明确的方式。一种语言（更不用说四种语言）从另一种语言中全盘借用一个完整的动词范式，尤其是像这样一个基本的动词。而且，恰好，这种动词在每种语言中几乎以同样的方式高度不规则。

1.3. If two or more languages share similarities that are so numerous and systematic that they cannot be ascribed to chance, borrowing, or linguistic universals, then the only hypothesis that provides a satisfactory explanation for those similarities is that they are descended from the same parent language. This is the essential statement of what is known as the comparative method. And in the case of Spanish, Italian, French, and Portuguese this hypothesis would be right: we know from other evidence that these languages are all descended from a variety of Latin.

1.3 如果两种(或两种以上的)语言有大量的、系统的相似之处，以至于不能归因于偶然(chance)、借用(borrowing)或语言共相(language universal)，那么为这些相似之处提供令人满意的解释的唯一假说(hypothesis)就是它们是同一父母语(parent language)的后代。这就是所谓的比较法(comparative method)的基本陈述。就西班牙语(Spanish)、意大利语(Italian)、法语(French)和葡萄牙语(Portuguese)而言，这一假设是正确的：我们从其他证据中得知，这些语言都是拉丁语(Latin)的一个变种的后代。

Languages like these that are descended from a common ancestor are said to be genetically related. This technical term has nothing to do with biology; it makes no claims about the race or ancestry of the speakers of the languages in question, who may belong to many ethnicities. (Just think of all the different ethnic backgrounds of people speaking English as their native language within any large English-speaking city.)

像这样从一个共同的祖先传下来的语言，被称作语系关系(genetically related)。这个专业术语与生物学无关；它没有对讲这些语言的人的种族或祖先提出要求，这些人可能属于许多民族。(试想，在任何一个讲英语的大城市里，以英语为母语的人都有不同的种族背景）。

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