Chap.18 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)
2024-04-07 14:14:15
Chap. 18: Cognitive Grammar: tense, aspect, mood and voice
English verbs: form and function 英语动词： 形式和功能
- Verbs can be divided into lexical verbs that belong to an open-class and auxiliary verbs that belong to a closded class.
动词可以被分为实义动词（属于开放性词类）和助动词（封闭性词类）。 - Auxiliaries can be divided into two subcategories: modal auxiliaries and primary auxiliaries. Modal auxiliaries like can and must are responsible for introducing epistemic mood (relating to knowledge) or deontic mood (relating to obligation or permission) into the clause. The primary auxiliaries have and be introduce grammatical aspect and passive voice.
助动词由可以被分为两个小类：情态助动词和基本助动词。情态助动词，如can 和must，传递了认知情态和义务情态。基本助动词have和be则传递了语法体和被动态。每种助动词都要求后跟的动词具有某种特定的语法形式。 - Each type of auxiliaries requires the verb that follows it to occur in a certain grammatical form. A single verb form in English is typically compatible with subjects that reflect a wide range of different person and number features. This explains why English does not usually license implicit subjects in main clauses because the person and number features of the subject are not usually marked on the verb.
The clausal head
- Langacker proposes that the verb string should be partitioned into grounding predication and clausal head. The grounding predication is the part of the verb string that is responsible for finiteness. (Finiteness means being marked for tense.) In English, this is either the first element in the verb string or is attached to the first element in the verb string. The remainder of the verb string, including any other auxiliary verb(s) together with the content verb, makes up the clausal head.
Langacker认为动词串应该被分为语境化描述部分和小句中心部分。语境化描述部分描述的是限定或非限定性(finiteness)（限定性指具有时态标记）。在英语中，语境化描述成分或是动词串中的第一个成分，或是附属在动词串第一个成分中。动词串的剩余部分，包括与实义动词搭配的助动词，组成了小句中心部分。 - (1) George must have been singing the blues.
(2) George has been singing the blues.
(3) George was singing the blues.
(4) George sang the blues.
If the sentence contains a modal, as in example (1), none of the other verbs in the string are finite. In the absence of the modal, the first verb in the string in finite. In example (2), the perfect auxiliary have is finite (present tense) while in example (3) the progressive auxiliary be is finite. If the lexical or content verb is the only verb in the string, this verb is finite.
如果一个句子包含一个情态词，如例（1），动词串中剩余的动词都是非限定的。如果没有情态词，动词串中的第一个动词就是限定的。例如（2）和（3）中的have和be。如果动词串中只有一个实义动词，那么该实义动词就是限定的。 - Within the clausal head, the lexical or content verb provides the content meaning. The leftmost verb functions as the profile determinant for the entire clause; Langacker calls this verb the grounded verb, because it is under the direct control of the grounding predication.
在小句中心成分中，实义动词提供内容含义。最左侧动词发挥整个句子的侧面决定项的作用，Langacker把这个动词称为语境化的动词(grounded verb)，因为其处在语境化描述的直接控制下。 - To take an example. 看下面这个例子
a. [have[PERF4[be1[-ing[be2[PERF3[V]]]]]]]
b. George must [have been being stalked].
Observe that the modal is not included in this representation of the verbal complex. This is because, it the clause contains a modal verb, it functions as the grounding predication. 注意，情态动词没有被包括在动词复杂体内。这是因为，如果一个句子包含情态动词，那么它发挥的是情景化描述成分的作用。
As Langacker observes, a number of striking patterns emerge from the representation in the example. Langacker观察到，从这个例子中可以看出一系列特征。
(1) To begin with, moving from right to left, the elements alternate between phonologically autonomous and phonologically dependent units.
首先，从左往右，各成分依次是语音自治-语音依存-语音自治…的。
(2) Secondly, as non-finite verb forms are classified as ATEMPORAL RELATIONS, the phonologically dependent forms have ATEMPORAL RELATIONS at their semantic poles. In contrast, Langacker argues that the phonologically autonomous forms have TEMPORAL RELATIONS at their semantic poles.
其次，因为非限定性动词形式被划分为ATEMPORAL RELATIONS，所以语音依存单位在语义极具有ATEMPORAL RELATIONS的意义。相反，Langacker认为语音自主单位在语义极具有TEMPORAL RELATIONS的意义。
(3) Thirdly, at each level in the increasingly complex clausal head construction, the leftmost element functions as the profile determinant, so that the constructions within this representation also alternate between PROCESS and ATEMPORAL RELATION, which in turn has consequences for how the complex construction can function within a larger construction. While a construction with the status of PROCESS can function as a clausal head, a construction with the status of ATEMPORAL RELATION can modify a noun.
第三，在复杂小句中心成分构式的每一层级上，最左侧的成分都发挥侧面决定项的作用；因此，每一层级构式依次是PROCESS和ATEMPORAL RELATION，影响着该构式在更大构式中发挥什么作用。一个PROCESS构式能够作为小句中心成分，一个ATEMPORAL RELATION构式则只能够修饰名词。 - Auxiliaries and their participles have to occur in pairs within a clause: have+V-PERF4 make a perfect construction; be1+V-ing make a progressive construction; and be2+V-PERF3 make a passive construction. The reason why these elements have to occur in pairs within the clause is because each construction headed by the participle (without its auxiliary) has the status of an ATEMPORAL RELATION. While this can occur as modifier, it cannot occur as a clausal head.
在句子中，助动词和分词必须成组出现。have+V-PERF4 构成完成时构式; be1+V-ing 构成进行时构式; and be2+V-PERF3 构成被动构式。它们必须成组出现的原因是，由分词（没有助词）为首的构式只具有ATEMPORAL RELATION的地位。只能作为修饰成分出现，不能作为小句中心成分。
The passive construction: [be2[PERF3[V]]] 被动构式：[be2[PERF3[V]]]
- In Cognitive Grammar auxiliaries receive a semantic characterisation, as does the participial morphology.
在认知语法中，同分词形式一样，助动词也具有语义特征。 - According to Langacker, the morpheme PERF3, which gives rise to the passive participle, imposes a construal upon the construction whereby a TR-LM reversal is effected. The content verb must have both a TR and a LM, which means that it must be a transitive or ditransitive verb.The morphome PERF3 (e.g. -ed in betrayed) is both phonologically and conceptually dependent and has a schematic PROCESS as its TR, which in turn has a schematic TR and LM. The autonomous content verb elaborates the schematic PROCESS of PERF3. The resulting construction [PERF3[V]] is headed by PERF3, and, as a participle, has the status of an ATEMPORAL RELATION that specifies the TR-LM reversal characteristic of a passive construction.
根据Langacker的理论，PERF3这个词素，使TR-LM反转这个构式具有了建构意义。那么，实义动词必须具有一个TR和一个LM，也就说说动词必须是及物动词或双宾语动词。词素PERF3(比如betrayed中的 -ed)既在语音上是依存的，在概念上也是依存的，有一个图示化PROCESS作为其TR，该PROCESS进一步本身也具有其TR和LM。自治的实义动词充当了PERF3需要的PROCESS的成分。得到的构式结果[PERF3[V]]中，中心词是PERF3；作为一个分词，其具有ATEMPORAL RELATION的地位，具体说明了被动构式的TR-LM反转特征。 - According to Langacker, the passive participle morpheme PERF3 belongs to a network of PERF morphemes that have related yet distinct meanings. We have already seen that PERF4 is the perfect participle morpheme that occurs in perfect constructions. And PERF1 is the form found in stative adjectival constructions like Lily’s heart is broken. We can see that PERF1 does not involve any TR-LM reversal. In contrast, the form that Langacker calls PERF2 also participates in stative adjectival constructions but is related to transitive verbs and does effect a TR-LM reversal. Like in George left Lily betrayed (by his cowardice).
根据Langacker的说法，被动分词词素PERF3属于一个PERF词素网络，由相互联系但各自不同的意义组成。我们在上面已经看到，PERF4是出现在完成时构式中的完成分词词素。PERF1是出现在陈述型描述构式中的，如Lily’s heart is broken。我们可以看出，PERF1中不涉及任何TR-LM的反转。但PERF2则是既出现在陈述型描述构式中，又与及物动词相联系，影响了TR-LM反转。例如，George left Lily betrayed (by his cowardice). - The passive auxiliary be2 also occurs in a network of related yet distinct uses of the same verb. The basic form of be, which Langacker calls be1, functions as the copula. When the passive auxiliary be2 combines with the passive participle containing PERF3, its role is also to contrue an ATEMPORAL RELATION as a PROCESS.
被动助动词be2 也出现在一系列相互联系又各自不同的意义网络中。Langacker将基本形式描述为be1，用作系动词。当被动助动词be2 与包含着PERF3的被动分词相结合时，其发挥的作用也是将一个ATEMPORAL RELATION建构为一个PROCESS.
The progressive construction: [be1[-ing[V]]] 进行时构式
- The meaning of the progressive participle morpheme -ing lies in its restriction of the sequence of events that make up a PROCESS to just the middle stages, thereby construing it as an ongoing event.
进行时分词词素*-ing*的意义在于限制组成PROCESS的事件的顺序于中间部分，这样就能够将其建构为一个进行中的事件。 - By itself, the resulting construction [-ing[V]] can perform a modifying function, but cannot head a clause. When be1 combines with [-ing[V]], it imposes its PROCESS profile on the resulting construction [be1[-ing[V]]], which can then head a clause.
如果以[-ing[V]]这种形式单独出现，该构式可以发挥修饰作用，但不能称为一个句子的中心成分。当 be1和[-ing[V]] 相结合时，它将其PROCESS的侧面加在最终的[be1[-ing[V]]]构式上，该构式也因此能够作为一个小句的中心成分出现了。
The perfect construction: [have[PERF4[V]]] 完成时构式
- PERF4 represents the past or perfect participial morphology, which gives rise to an ATEMPORAL RELATION. The perfect auxiliary have imposes its PROCESS profile upon this construction, giving rise to the perfect construction [have[PERF4[V]]], which can then function as clausal head.
PERF4代表着过去或完成分词形态，能够产生ATEMPORAL RELATION。完成时助动词auxiliary给该增加了PROCESS这一侧面。因此产生了[have[PERF4[V]]]构式，该构式能够发挥小句中心成分的作用。 - The perfect construction encodes an event as completed with respect to a given reference point in time. Langacker therefore suggests that the function of the perfect is to encode current relevance.
完成时构式指称了一个相对于某个参考时间点已经完成的事件。Langacker因此称完成时的作用时指称current relevance（当时相对性）。 - Langacker identifies the semantics of auxiliary have as evoking (1) a temporal (rather than spatial) reference point, and (2) current (rather than potential) relevance.
Langacker分析了助动词have具有的两个功能：能够激发（1）时间（非空间）参考点，（2）当时相对性(current relevance)。 - The perfect construction construes an event as completed and furthermore emphasises the event’s completion. Langacker argues that PERF4 shares a further aspect of its meaning with the other instances of PERF, which is that all four variants emphaisise the terminal stage of an event.
完成时构式将时间建构为完成了的，也因此强调了该事件的完成性。Langacker认为PERF4和其他PERF因此也有了另外的意义共同点，也就是所有的四个PERF变体都强调了某事件的终极状态。 - It is important to emphasise that the passive, progressive and perfect constructions are not seperate or unrelated constructions. It is possible for all three constructions to co-occur in one complex construction.
需要强调的一点是，被动、进行时、和完成时构式不是分别无联系的构式。这三种构式可能同时出现在一个复杂构式中。 - As the discussion above illustrates, both auxiliary and content verbs are represented as PROCESSES, but differ with respect to their relative schematicity or specificity at the semantic pole.
通过以上讨论可以看出，助动词和实义动词都被视为PROCESS，但它们的不同之处在于语义极的相对图式程度和相对具体程度。
The grounding predication: mood and tense 语境化描述：情态和时态
- Not all sentences contain modal verbs, in which case the grounding predication is a tense morpheme, which is phonologically dependent and attaches to the first verb that makes up the clausal head. In many constructions, then, the distinction between grounding predication and clausal head is blurred by the fact that they may be morphologically bound together.
不是所有的句子都包含情态动词，当不包含情态动词时，语境化描述成分就是时态词素。其时语音依存的，依赖于组成小句中心成分的第一个动词。也正是因此，在语境化描述成分和小句中心成分之间的界限是模糊的，因为它们可能在形态上被融合在一起。 - According to Langacker, what noun phrases and finite clauses share is the fact that they are grounded. As we have seen, each speech event involves a ground, which consists of place and time of speaking, the participants in the speech event and so on; grounding is the process whereby linguistic expressions are linked to the ground.
根据Langacker的理论，名词词组和有定小句的相同点在于，它们都是语境化的。我们已经知道，每个言语事件都有语境(ground)，语境组成成分有，说话的事件和地点，言语事件的参与者等；而语境化(grounding)的过程就是将语言表达与语境联系起来的过程。 - As we have seen in Chapter 16, grounding predications do not make up a distinct word class but are represented as schematic categories for the class that they interact with.
我们在第16章可以看到，语境化描述成分不单独构成一个词类，而是与它所互动的词类同属一个范畴。 - In the same way that nouns are grounded by determiners, finite clauses are grounded by tense and by modals which link the PROCESS designated by the clause to the specific usage event. Tense situates the PROCESS relative to the time of speaking, while the modal verbs establish the reality status of the designated PROCESS from the speaker’s perspective. In the same way that a nominal grounding predication is represented in the network as a schematic nominal or THING, the clausal grounding predication is represented in the network as a schematic verb or PROCESS.
就像名词通过限定词被语境化，有定小句的语境化表达则是时态和情态动词，它们将小句指代的PROCESS与具体的言语行为联系起来。时态使PROCESS与说话的事件相联系起来，而情态动词将PROCESS与说话者视角联系起来。一个名词语境化描述成分被描述为图示化名词或THING，与之类似，小句的名词化描述成分被描述为图示化动词或PROCESS。
Mood (or modality) 情态
- Mood or modality is usually divided into two broad categories: epistemic and deontic. Epistemic modality is a type of grammatical marking that encodes the speaker’s judgement relating to his or her knowledge about the possiblity, likelihood or certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. Deontic modality expresses the speaker’s judgment relating to obligation (moral or social), permission or prohibition. However, the English modal verbs cannot be divided neatly into two categories because their interpretation can be rather fluid.
情态动词可以大体被分为两个范畴类别：认知情态(epistemic)和义务情态(deontic)。认知情态是说明了说话者关于可能性和确定性的看法的语法标志。义务情态则表达了说话者关于必要性和批准禁止的看法。但是，英语的情态动词往往不能够被完全严格的划分为两个范畴，因为界限往往是不固定的。 - The modal auxiliaries do not inflect in the usual way. And with the exception of must, the English modals occur in pairs (can-could, may-might, shall-should* will-would).
情态助动词也不与其他动词一样具有各种屈折变化。除了must外，英语情态动词以组的形式对应出现。
Tense 时态
- Tense refers to the grammatical marking of time relative to the time of speaking. In other words, a language is only described as having tense if it has a distinct morphological verb form that indicates past/present/future time. English is only described as having two tenses: past and present (non-past); it has no future tense, since it lacks a verb form inflected for future.
时态是指相对于说话时间点的时间语法标记。换句话说，只有具有明确的表示过去、现在和未来的动词形态形式，才能说一个语言具有时态。英语被认为只有两个时态，过去时和现在时。没有将来时，因为英语没有未来时间标记的动词形式。
The epistemic model 认知模式
- In order to provide a semantic account of tense and the modals, Langacker invokes an idealised cognitive model (ICM), which he calls the epistemic model.
为了从语义角度描述时态和情态，Langacker提出了理想化认知模型（ICM)，也称为认知模式。
- In this model, the larger circle represents immediate reality. This represents the ground in which the speech event occurs. The small shaded circle represents the language user. The horizontal line running through the centre of the diagram represents TIME. The dotted line represents TIME until now and the continuous line represents TIME after now.
在该模型中，较大的圆圈代表当下现实，也就是言语行为发生的背景。小的黑色圆圈代表语言使用者。穿过图表中心的水平线代表时间TIME。虚线代表的现在以前的时间，实线代表的是现在之后的时间。 - To explain how this model accounts for tense, while present tense refers to time inside the ground, past tense refers to the portion of time within known reality but outside the ground, and future tense refers to time in irreality, beyond the ground. This model represents a version of an ego-based model for TIME.
那么我们来看一下这个模型是如何解释时态的。 现在时指代语境内的时间(time inside the ground)，过去时指代现实中、语境外的时间(time within known reality but outside the ground)，将来时指非现实的、处于背景外的时间。可以说，这个模型对事件的解释是基于自我的(ego-based)。 - The epistemic model also accounts for the modal verbs. While the absence of a modal verb indicates that the speaker construes the event as part of known reality, the presence of a modal verb indicates that the speaker construes the event as part of irreality.
该认识模型也可以用来解释情态动词。 当一个句子中没有出现情态动词时，说话者将言语行为建构为已知现实的一部分。当一个句子中出现情态动词时，说话者则将言语行为建构为非现实的一部分。 - Reality and irreality also vary along parameters of distance, in terms of whether they are immediate (close) or non-immediate (distant) relative to the ground. This type of variation is called epistemic distance. For example, in the case of the modals, Langacker argues that the pairs (for example, can and could) that we observed earlier represent immediate versus distant irreality, respectively. Immediate irreality is close to known reality, and characterises verbs like must, will and can which encode a strong degree of obligation, likelihood or possiblity. These contrasts with their distal counterparts like would and could, which encode a much weaker sense of possibility, a much stronger sense of doubt, and so on. In the same way, Langacker analyses the past tense morpheme -ed as a distal morpheme. In contrast, the prototypical simple present morpheme is treated as an unmarked form, or zero morpheme. Therefore there will be four basic types of grounding predication.
现实性和非现实性(reality and irreality)可以用距离(distance)维度来评判，评判其与语境是否密切相关。该维度上的差异可以被描述为认知距离(epistemic distance)。例如，对于情态词来说，Langacker认为情态词通常成对出现，例如can 和 could，它们就分别代表着密切不现实性(immediate irreality)和遥远不现实性(distant irreality)。密切不现实性与现实性更为靠近，主要通过动词must, will 和can来表示，代表一种较强程度的可能性。与之相对的遥远不现实性则代表着一种较弱程度的可能性。与之类似，Langacker认为过去时词素*-ed*是一个遥远词素，而原型现在时词素责备认为是无标记的形式，也被称为零词素(zero morpheme)。根据以上分析，我们可以得到四种类型的基本语境化描述成分。
While a. and b. relate to present and past tense respectively, c. and d. relate to modality. Beyong these parameters of variarion, tense and modality essentially belong to the same category in Cognitive Grammar: they are both types of grounding predication.
a.和b.分别代表了现在时和过去时，c.和d.代表了情态动词。虽然时态和情态在认知距离上存在不同，但它们都同属语境化描述成分这一范畴。
Explaining the grammatical behaviour of the modals 为什么情态动词具有这样的语法特征
- Firstly, the fact that the modal does not inflect to form a participle or an infinitive is consistent with its role as a grounding predication: participles and infinitives are ATEMPORAL RELATIONS, while the modal is a schematic PROCESS. Secondly, this analysis also explains the fact that the modal does not participate in subject-verb agreement (Lily musts succeed). This is because the third person present tense morpheme -s is itself a grounding predication with an opposing reality value, so the two are not expected to co-occur. Finally, the fact that the modal has to be followed by the bare infinitive form of the next verb in the string is accounted for on the basis that a grounding predication and its grounded element must match in terms of category.
首先，情态动词不发生屈折变化来形成分词或不定式是与其作为语境化描述成份的现实有关的，分词和不定式都是ATEMPORAL RELATIONS，而情态动词是一个图示化的PROCESS。其次，该分析也解释了为什么情态动词不遵从主谓一致，如Lily musts succeed。这是因为，第三人称单数现在时词素 -s本身就是一个语境化描述成分，所以两者不能同时出现。最后一点，情态动词后面必须跟动词原形是因为，语境化描述成分与被语境化成分必须在范畴上保持一致。
Potential and projected reality 可能现实与投射现实
- In the context of the epistemic model, the modals are characterised in terms of potential reality and projected reality. The modal will encodes projected reality (in IMMEDIATE IRREALITY), and therefore gives rise to the future time interpretation. In contrast, may encodes only potential reality (although still in IMMEDIATE IRREALITY), hence a weaker epistemic reading.
基于认知模型，情态词可以被分为反映了可能现实(potential reality)的和反映了投射现实(projected reality)的。情态词will 反映了（密切不现实性中的）投射现实，因此产生了未来时的理解。与之相对，may 则反映了可能现实，虽然也是密切不现实性中的，因此只能产生较弱的认知理解。 - Langacker adopts a force-dynamics model to cature this distinction between projected and potential reality. If the event is construed as having sufficient momentum that the speaker can be confident that it will reach the predicted reality status, this is projected reality. In contrast, an event that is construed as having weaker momentum has only potential reality status.
Langacker用力-动态模型来解释投射现实和可能现实之间的关系。如果某事件被建构为具有很强动力，说话者有信心其能够达到预测中的现实的状态，那么这就是投射现实。相反，如果某事件被建构为动力较弱，那么它就是可能现实。 - The polysemy of the modal verbs is also explained in force-dynamics terms. The distinction between the deontic and epistemic readings relates to whether the source of the momentum is salient. If the source of the momentum is salient, this gives rise to deontic interpretations. If the source of the momentum is not salient, this gives rise to the epistemic reading.
情态动词的多义现象也可以用力-动态模型来解释。义务情态理解和认知情态理解可以依据动力来源的强弱与否。如果动力来源很强，那么就是义务情态理解。如果动力来源不强，那么就是认知情态理解。
Situation aspect 情境体
- In this section, we will look at the type of aspect that is inherent in certain content words rather than the type of aspect that is imposed on a construction by auxiliary verbs. Aspect that is imposed upon a clause by auxiliary verbs is called grammatical aspect, while aspect that is inherent in the semantics of a content word is called lexical aspect. And verbs are the linguistic category that receives the most attention given their central role in the clause, and this is often described in terms of situation aspect.
在这一部分我们将讨论另一种存在于特定实义词内部的“体”，而不是通过助动词构式体现的“体”。通过助动词体现的“体”被称为语法体，而从在于实义词语义内部的体被称为“词汇体”。在实义词中，动词又受到最多关注，它们通常被讨论的是“情境体”。
Situation types 情境类别
- A particular influential account of lexical aspect is Vendler’s (1967) account of situation types, where verbs, and hence clauses that they head, are classified into four major categories in terms of a set of aspectual features.
关于词汇体的著名论述是Vendler’s 在1967提出的关于情境分类的理论。根据一系列体滕峥，小句中心成分动词可以被分类，小句也因此被划分为四个主要范畴。
- Briefly, a verb is stative if it describes an event that remains constant through time and does not involve internal change or action. A dynamic verb involves internal change or action.
简单来说，，如果一个动词描述的事件随着事件的进程保持不变，不发生内部的变化，那么该动词是陈述性的。一个动作性动词则涉及内部的变化。 - The distinction between durative and punctual aspect relates to whether the event described by the verb is over almost as soon as it has begun, or extends over time. The distinction between telicity and atelicity relates to whether the event described by the verb has an inherent endpoint or goal as part of its meaning. These aspectual features together give rise to the taxonomy.
延续性动词和瞬间性动词的区别在于，该动词描述的动作是不是一发生就结束了，还是随着事件延续下去。终结性和非终结性的区别在于，某动词描述的事件意义是不是包含一个内部的终点。这些特征共同产生了以上的分类。
Perfective and imperfective PROCESSES
- According to Langacker, the basic aspectual distinction is between perfective and imperfective. An imperfective PROCESS is characterised by the fact that each releation that makes up the cognitive representation is the same as the next, which means that the situation described remains constant throught time. A perfective PROCESS is characterised by a sequnce of relations where each is different from the last, which means that the situation described involves change through time.
根据Langacker的理论，基本的体区别在于完成体(perfective)和非完成体(imperfective)。一个非完成体的PROCESS意味着组成该概念表征的各关系都与下一个关系一样，也就是说，所描述的情境随着事件的推移一直是不变的。而一个完成体的PROCESS由一系列relations组成，每个relation都与上一个不同，这也意味着所描述的情境随着时间的推移在发生变化。
Aspect and the count/mass distinction
- Langacker proposes that the perfective/imperfective distinction can be modelled in the same terms as the count/mass distinction. In other words, the aspectual distinction relates to the nature of the component parts of the PROCESS, and to the presence or absence of bounding. Of course, aspect relates to bounding in TIME rather than bounding in SPACE.
Langacker提出，完成体和非完成体的区别也可以用count/mass的区别来解释。换句话说，体区别与PROCESS的组成成分的形式有关，也与界线(bounding)的存在与否有关。当然，体(aspect)与时间(TIME)上的界线(bounding)有关，而非空间上的界线。 - Perfective完成体
-The perfective PROCESS is likened to a count noun in that both are bounded and in that both are replicable. For count noun, replicability gives rise to pluralisation. For perfective PROCESSES, replicability can give rise to iterative aspect.
完成体可以被类比为可数名词，因为两者都是有界的，也都是可复制的。对于可数名词，可复制性也就意味着复数性(pluralisation)。对于完成体PROCESSES来说，可复制性意味着重复体/反复体。
-A perfective PROCESS is bounded, which means that a full instantiation includes the beginning and end points of the PROCESS. This explains why perfective PROCESSES are typically incompatible with the simple present which encodes an event coextensive with the moment of speaking: it is not usually possible for all the distinct subparts of a perfective PROCESS to coincide with the moment of speaking.
完成体PROCESS是有界的，也就是说，一个关于完成体PROCESS的完整叙述是包括该PROCESS的起始点和结束点的。这解释了为什么完成体PROCESSES不适合用于一般现在时。因为一般现在时指称在说话时存在的动作，而一个完成体PROCESS的所有组成部分不可能在说话时同时得到彰显。
-Punctual events represent an exception to this generalisation. Verbs like flash encode bounded events that are over almost as soon as they have begun, which explains why they can be modified by temporal expressions that pinpoint a moment in time. Perfomative verbs like promise or declare also represent an exception. While perfective and therefore bounded, the act of promising or declaring is instaneous (punctual) and can therefore coincide with the moment of speaking.
但瞬间性时间是个例外。flash之类的动词指称了那些刚发生就结束了的有界事件，这也解释了为何它们能够适配那些描述了某个时间点的时间性表达。施为动词也是例外。虽然施为动词也是完成体、有界的，但承诺和宣告都是瞬时性作为，可以在与说话时间同时发生。 - Imperfective 非完成体
-The imperfective PROCESS is likened to a mass noun, because in the same way that the component parts of a mass noun are homogeneous, the component states of a prototypical imperfective PROCESS are identical. Ang given subpart of an imperfective PROCESS is still an instance of that PROCESS, this explains why a prototypical imperfective PROCESS is compatible with the simple present. This follows directly from the property of homogeneity.
非完成体PROCESS被类比为不可数名词(mass noun)，因为不可数名词的组成部分是同质的，非完成体PROCESS也是一样同质的，各个组成情况都是相同的。一个非完成体PROCESS的任何组成部分都是该PROCESS的一个例示，这也解释了为什么原型非完成体PROCESS与一般现在时适配。这直接与同质性相关。
-Unlike the perfective, the prototypical imperfective PROCESS is incompatible with the progressive, because the function of the progressive is to construe an event as imperfective. It is therefore redundant to mark an imperfective process as progressive. This is illustrated by examples following.
与完成体不同，原型非完成体PROCESS与进行时(progressive)不适配。因为进行时的功能是”将一个事件建构为非完成体的“，那么再将非完成体与进行时同时使用就显得多余(redundant)了。我们可以看以下例子。
(1) Having a broken nose, George was not supermodel material.
(2) * George was having a broken nose.
As we saw earlier, the inflectional -ing morpheme derives an ATEMPORAL RELATION from a PROCESS. This explains why progressive participles of imperfective PROCESSES are licensed in adverbial clauses, despite the fact that an imperfective PROCESS cannot occur in the progressive. This is because the progressive auxiliary be imposes a PROCESS reading on the ATEMPORAL RELATION.
我们已经知道, -ing 这个词素能够将PROCESS变为ATEMPORAL RELATION，这也解释了为什么进行时分词在状语从句中可以与非进行体PROCESSES同时出现，但不能在进行时句子中同时出现。因进行时句子中还有be的存在，be就使ATEMPORAL RELATION变成了PROCESS。
-Imperfective PROCESS is atelic, because unbounded processes do not specify an inherent endpoint. The imperfective PROCESS is also necessarily durative. The prototypical imperfective PROCESS is the stative PROCESS. This corresponds to Vendler’s state. Taylor also suggests that activities can be classified as a type of imperfective PROCESS. Although dynamic, activities are durative and atelic, hence unbounded. Unlike states, activities are compatible with the progressive.
非完成体PROCESS是非终结性的，因为无界的过程没有内部的终点。非完成性PROCESSES也是延续性的。典型的非完成性PROCESS是陈述性的，对应了Vendler所说的state。Taylor认为activities也可以被划分为非完成性PROCESS。虽然是动作性的，activities也是延续性的、非终结性的。但与state不同的是，activities可以与进行时适配。
To conclude:
The verb string= a grounding predication+a clausal head.
A grounding predication= a tense morpheme/ a modal verb.
A clausal head=a perfect construction/ a progressive construction/ a passive construction.
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