Chap.20 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap. 20: The architecture of construction grammars

Goldberg’s construction grammar Goldberg的构式语法理论

Kay and Fillmore set out to explain the irregular first, on the assumption that once principles have been developed that account for the irregular, then the same principles should be able to explain the regular.
Kay和Fillmore等人从不常规(irregular)用法出发，假设这些能够解释不常规用法的原则可以被拓展用于解释常规(regular)用法。
Goldberg developed a construction grammar that sought to extend the constructional approach from irregular idiomatic constructions to regular constructions. In order to do this, Goldberg focused on verb argument constructions.
Goldberg就提出了一套构式语法理论，能够从解释不常规习语构式延伸到解释常规构式。为了做到这一点，Goldberg主要关注动词论元构式。

Assumptions 基本假设

The central thesis of Goldberg’s theory is that sentence-level constructions themselves carry meaning, independently of the words in the sentence.
Goldberg理论的中心论点是，句子层面的构式本身携带不需要句子中词语就存在的意义。
As Goldberg observes, the issue of argument structure alternations has received a considerable amount of attention.
Goldberg观察到，论元结构替换现象受到广泛关注。
As these examples illustrate, the ditransitive verb bring can occur in two different construction types. The first is double object constructions (in 1a and 2a), because the verb is followed by two nominal objects. The second is called the prepositional construction (in 1b and 2b), where the indirect object is instead represented by a preposition phrase (PP).
通过以上例子我们可以看出来，双宾语动词bring可以出现在两种句子构式结构中。第一个是双宾语构式，即动词后跟两个名词性宾语。第二个是介词性构式，即间接宾语被一个介词短语PP替代。
The point of interest here relates to the fact the while the prepositional construction allows the recipient to be either animate or inanimate, the double object construction requires that it be animate. Goldberg argues that the most explanatory account associates these semantic restrictions directly with the grammatical construction itself, rather than stating the information in the lexical entries of individual verbs.
有趣之处在于，介词性构式中，接收者既可以是有生命的，也可以是无生命的；而双宾语结构中则要求接收者必须是有生命的。Goldberg认为，针对这种现象最好的解释是该语义与该语法构式直接相关，而非与单个动词的语义项相关。
It is important to point out that her definition of a construction differs somewhat from the definition assumend by Langacker. Langacker defines a construction as any unit with a complex symbolic structure (a complex word, a phrase consisting of more than a single free morpheme or a sentence). In Goldberg’s definition, if any aspect of either the form or the meaning of a unit cannot be shown to be predictable from the properties of its component parts, then it has the status of a construction. It follows that both bound morphemes and free morphemes are constructions in Goldberg’s theory, while they do not have construction status in Langacker’s theory.
需要指出的是，Goldberg的关于构式的定义与Langacker提出的构式定义有所不同。Langacker认为构式是任何具有复杂象征结构的单位，如复杂单词，由多个词素组成的短语，句子等。在Goldberg看来，如果某语言单位的形式或意义任何一方面是无法通过组成成分的性质推测得到的，那么它就具有构式的地位。从这一点来看，黏着语素和自由语素在Goldberg看来都是构式，但在Langacker看来并非如此。
Given that the central status of constructions blurs the boundaries between lexicon and syntax, Goldberg, like other cognitive linguists, assumes the lexicon-grammar continuum. She refers to the lexicon-grammar continnuum as the constructicon (the repository of constructions).
构式的中心地位模糊了词汇和句法的绩点，因此，同其他认知语言学家一样，Goldberg认为语法-词汇是一个连续统。她将词汇-语法连续统称为constructicon。

Advantanges of a constructional approach to verb arguement structure 用构式方法研究动词论元结构的优势

Avoiding implausible verb senses 避免不合适的动词义
-Firstly, the constructional approach avoids the necessity of positing several distinct senses for one verb.
首先，用构式方法研究动词论元结构能够避免掉提出好多个不适用的动词义。
Avoiding circularity避免循环论证
-Secondly, Goldberg argues that a constructional account has the advantage of avoiding circularity.
第二，Goldberg提出，构式方式研究动词论元结构能够避免如下的循环论证的问题。
Semantic parsimony语义经济
-The third advantage that Goldberg claims for a constructional approach is that it enables semantic parsimony. In other words, if the range of constructions in which a verb can occur can be accounted for directly in relation to the construction itself, the resulting explanation is more economical.
Goldberg提出的第三个优势在于构式研究方法能够实现语义经济/节俭。换句话说，如果许许多多构式能够直接通过构式本身解释，而非动词，那么解释内容就会少很多。
Compositionality组构性
-The fourth advantage claimed by Goldberg is that a constructional account preserves compositionality, albeit in a weakened form. In a constructional approach, Goldberg argues, the problems inherent in a lexically driven approach can be avoided while preserving the point of agreement: words do contribute meaning to sentences, but not all the meaning. Sentence-level constructions have their own conventional schematic meaning independent of the verbs and other lexical items that are embedded in them.
Goldberg提出的第四点是，构式方法保留了较弱版本的组构性。在构式方法中，传统词汇驱动方法的问题得到了避免，但又同时保留了一致原则，因为词项虽然给句子提供语义，但并不是所有的意义。句子层面的构式本身具有独立于动词和其他词项的属于其自身的意义。

The relationship between verbs and constructions 动词和构式之间的关系

Goldberg explores the nature of the relationship between verbs and constructions by posing three questions.
Goldberg通过提出三个问题来探讨动词和构式之间的关系。
What is the nature of verb meaning? 动词意义的本质是什么？
-Goldberg argues in favour of a Frame Semantics view of verb meaning. This account of word meaning holds that the rich and detailed meaning of individual words is understood against th background of a particular conceptual frame. Goldberg aruges that a frame provides the basis of our understanding of the nature and manner of the motion involved.
Goldberg框架语义学的理论。框架语义学认为单个词项的意义要放在某个概念框架背景中才能理解。Goldberg认为，概念框架为理解动作的本质和动作的方式提供了基础。
What is the nature of constructional meaning? 构式意义的本质是什么？
-Within the speaker’s knowledge of language or construction, Goldberg argues that constructions form a network. Within this network, constructions have related and sometimes overlapping meanings. Constructions, just like words, will exhibit polysemy.
在说话者关于语言或构式的知识中，Goldberg提出，构式能够组成网络。在构式网络中，构式有相互关联相互交叉的含义。

-Take the ditransitive construction as an example. According to Goldberg, SUCCESSFUL TRANSFER represents the central or prototypical sense of the ditransitive construction (in 6a), while the other examples share aspects of the prototypical sense (TRANSFER) while departing from it in other respects (the TRANSFER may only be intended or potential).
已双宾语动词构式为例。根据Golberg的说法，SUCCESSFUL TRANFER是该构式的中心或原型意义（如6a），而其他例子中则只彰显了原型意义的一部分（TRANFER)，在其他部分则有所不同。
-These examples also illustrate the contribution of both the construction and the verb itself to the overall meaning of the sentence. While the construction determines what the possible meanings are, the verb determines which of these possible meanings is realised.
这些例子也说明了，构式本身与动词都参与了句子意义的构建。一方面，构式决定了可能存在的意义有哪些，另一方面，动词决定了具体实现哪个意义。
-According to Goldberg, the central or prototypical sense associted with a construction is salient because it represents a basic aspect of human experience. She captures this view by positing the scene encoding hypothesis.
Scene encoding hypothesis: Constructions which correspond to basic sentence types encode as their central senses event types that are basic to human experience.
根据Goldberg的看法，一个构式的中心或原型意义是显著的，是因为其与最基本的人类经验相关。她把这一观点表述为"scene encoding hypothesis"。
Scene encoding hypothesis: Constructions which correspond to basic sentence types encode as their central senses event types that are basic to human experience.
Where can a given verb occur in a given construction? 一个给定动词可以出现在一个给定构式的哪个位置？
-Goldberg argues that while verbs are associated with participant roles, constructions have argument roles. Participant roles are associated with rather specific meanings that are related to their underlying frame or domain of experience. A particular verb profiles particular participants within the frame or conceptual domain that underlies the meaning of that verb.
Goldberg提出，一方面，动词有参与成分(participant role)，另一方面，构式有论元成分(argument role)。动词参与成分往往具有较为具体的意义，与经验概念域或框架相关。一个特定的动词选择凸显概念域或框架中的特定角色，组成该动词的意义。

-From examples above, while rob obligatorily profiles THIEF and TARGET, steal obilgatorily profiles THIEF and GOODS.
从以上例子可以看出来，动词rob凸显的是THIEF和TARGET，而动词steal凸显的是THIEF和GOODS。可以被表示为下面的形式。

Argument roles 论元成分

-In contrast to the relative specificity of participant roles, the argument roles that are associated with sentence-level constructions in Goldberg’s model are of a more general semantic kind, and are familiar to sentence structure that assume semantic roles.
与动词参与成分是具体的不同，句子构式的论元成分在语义上则更为概括(general)，一定程度上与提倡语义成分(semantic roles)的句子结构(sentence structure)类似。
-This type of approach rests upon the semantic partition of the clause into predicate and arguments. In the semantic roles sense, the predicate is usually a word-level unit that can be thought of as the semantic head of the sentence. Prototypically, the predicate of a clause is the lexical or content verb.
这种分析方法是基于将句子分为谓语和论元的语义划分(semantic partition)上的。在语义成分层面，谓词通常是单词层面的单位，被视作整个句子的语义中心。句子谓语的原型一般是实义动词。
-Depending on the semantics of the predicate, it will take a certain number of arguments which are the participants or entities that the predicate requires in order to complete its meaning. The number and type of arguments that a predicate requires is traditionally referred to in terms of valence. Argument structure is an alternative term for valence. Parts of the sentence that are not required by the predicate fall outside the argument structure of that predicate, which explains why expressions like this are optional.
根据谓语的语义结构，谓语会搭配一定数量的论元；谓语需要这些论元才能获得完整意义。谓语搭配的论元的数量和种类被称为配价。论元结构(argument structure)是配价(valence)的别称。 句子的某些部分不是谓语必需的成分，也就落在谓语论元结构之外，也因此这类表达是可有可无的(optional)。
-The semantic roles approach goes beyond the number of arguments required by a predicate and also looks at the types of arguments required in terms of their semantic properties.
语义成分分析的方法不仅仅关注谓语所需的论元的数量，还关注论元的种类（论元的语义性质）。
-In order to capture these semantic restrictions, various proposals have been put forth concerning the semantic roles. Another name for semantic roles a thematic roles.
为了描述这些语义限制条件，许多人都提出了研究语义角色的建议。语义角色的另一个名字是论指角色/主题角色(thematic roles)。

-The idea of semantic roles has been very influential in modern linguistics, and both formal and cognitive models rely upon this notion in terms of addressing the nature of the relationship between grammar and meaning. In Transformational Generative approaches, semantic roles are listed in the lexicon as part of the lexical entry of a predicate. In the cognitive model, semantic roles like AGENT and PATIENT are not linked directly to individual verbs but to some underlying representation that structures the clause.
语义角色在现代语言学的研究中很受欢迎，形式和认知语言学都借助这个概念来解释语法和语义之间的关系。在转换生成研究中，语义角色被包含在心理词汇库(lexicon)中，是谓语的一个语义项。在认知语言学研究中，AGENT和PATIENT等语义成分不直接与某个动词相联系，而是与该句子的某些底层表达结构联系起来。

Constructional profiling 构式凸显

While each verb determines which of its participant roles is lexically profiled or conceptually highlighted, sentence-level constructions also profile their argument roles. However, the constructional profiling of argument roles is more flexible.
动词能够决定其某个参与成分被凸显/被强调，同样，构式也能够决定其某个论元被凸显。不过，构式凸显更为灵活。
Goldberg suggests that only the argument roles that are linked to a grammatical function (subject, direct object or indirect object) are constructionally profiled. Other argument roles may optionally be present in the sentence but represented as prepositional phrases, sometimes called oblique objects. In Goldberg’s theory, these are not constructionally profiled.
Goldberg提出，只有与语法功能（主语，直接宾语，间接宾语等）相连的论元角色才会被凸显。其他论元角色在句子中是可有可无的，通过介词短语的形式出现，它们有时被称为透明宾语(oblique objects)。在Goldberg看来，它们是未被构式凸显的。
This reveals a distinction between lexical profiling and constructional profiling. Lexical profiling relates to the aspect of an expression’s meaning that is made explicit by some expression. Constructional profiling relates to the realisation of argument roles made explicit by core grammatical relations. This means that some arguments may be lexically profiled yet not constructionally profiled.
这也显示了词语凸显和构式凸显的区别。词语凸显指某语言表达的部分意义被凸显；构式凸显指论元结构通过核心语法关系被凸显。这也同时意味着某些论元可能被词语凸显的同时并未被构式凸显。

Fusion 结合

Goldberg posits two principles that govern the association of a verb’s participant roles with a construction’s argument roles: (1) the Semantic Coherence Principle, and (2) the Correspondence Principle.
Goldberg提出两个原则，来解释动词的参与角色与构式的论元角色如何联系、结合在一起：（1）语义连贯原则(the Semantic Coherence Principle)，（2）对应性原则(the Correspondence Principle)。
The semantic Coherence Principle: Only roles which are semantically compatible can be fused. Two roles r1 and r2 are semantically compatible if either r1 can be construed as an instance of r2, or r2 can be construed as an instance of r1. Whether a role can be construed as a instance of another role is determined by general categorisation principles.
语义连贯原则：只有在语义上兼容共存的成分才能够结合。r1和r2两个成分只有在，r1是r2的一个例示或r2是r1的一个例示时才能结合。一个成分能否被建构为另一个成分的例示时由普遍范畴原则(general categorisation principles)决定的。
The Correspondence Principle: Each participant role that is lexically profiled and expressed must be fused with a profiled argument role of the construction.
对应性原则：任何在词汇层面得到凸显的参与成分必须与构式层面凸显的论元成分结合。
The Semantic Coherence Principle works by matching a participant role with an argument role and seeing if the two overlap sufficiently for one to be construed as an instance of the other. For example, general categorisation principles enable us to determine that the THIEF participant role of the verb steal overlaps sufficiently with the argument role AGENT, because both share semantic properties such as ANIMACY, INTENTION, CAUSATION and so on.
语义连贯原则的工作机制为，将一个参与成分与论元成分匹配，看一看两者是否有组构的语义重叠，能够使得其中一个成为另外一个的例示。例如，普遍范畴原则使我们能够将动词steal的THIEF参与成分与论元成分AGENT相联系，因为两者都具有一定的语义性质，如ANIMACY, INTENTION, CAUSATION等。
The Correspondence Principle states that profiled argument roles are obligatorily matched with profiled participant roles. There is some flexibility in this principle, allowing that one of the participant roles may or may not be constructionally profiled in the case of a verb with three participant roles.
对应性原则认为，被凸显的论元成分必须与被凸显的参与成分相对应。但该原则有一定的灵活性，灵活性在于，如果一个动词有三个参与成分，那么其中一个参与成分可以在构式层面不被凸显。
The difference between the two verbs send and hand can be captured in terms of which participant roles they obligatorily lexically profile. While for send, the SENDEE participant role is optionally lexically profiled, for hand, all three of its participant roles are obligatorily lexically profiled.
以动词send和hand为例，两者之间的不同可以通过其凸显的参与成分的不同来解释。对于send来说，SENDEE这一参与成分可以被凸显，也可以不被凸显；而对于hand来说，三个参与成分都必须被凸显。
Next, Goldberg trys to explain how the right verbs are matched with the right constructions. As Goldberg points out, it is necessary to restrict the linking of certain constructions to certain classes of verbs by exlaining which aspects of a verb’s meaning license the linking. She suggests that certain aspects of verb meaning are salient in this licensing process. For example, if a verb’s meaning denotes a subtype of the event types represented by the semantics of the construction, this will license the linking. For example, give, hand and send are all subtypes of the CAUSE-RECEIVE event. Alternatively, a verb’s meaning might denote the means by which the event designated by the construction is brought about.
接下来，Goldberg尝试解释正确的动词是如何与正确的构式联系起来的。正如她指出的那样，有必要通过动词的某些意义来确定/限制特定构式与特定动词类别的联系。她提出，动词意义的某些方面在联系过程中是显著的。例如，如果一个动词的意义是某构式意义的一种，这就可以构成联系。例如，give, hand 和 send 都是CAUSE-RECEIVE事件下的一种。另一方面，如果一个动词的意义指称了构式意义实现的某种方式，它们也能够被联系起来。如下面的例子。

Relationships between constructions 构式间关系

Having set out what kinds of factors govern the relationships between constructions and individual verbs, Goldberg’s next task is to explain what governs the relationship between constructions themselves. Like Langacker, Goldberg assumes that constructions interact within a structured network of relations. Relationships between constructions are captured in terms of motivation and inheritance.
弄清楚了动词与构式之间的关系，接下来我们来看一看构式与构式之间的关系。同Langacker一样，Goldberg认为构式与构式之间存在结构性关系网络。这些关系主要靠激发(motivation)和继承(inheritance)维持。
The term motivation reflects the degree to which the properties of a given construction are predictable. Given the premise that grammatical constructions are meaningful, it follows that constructions that share grammatical properties will to some extent share semantic properties.
激发指的是多大程度上一个构式的性质能被推测得出。我们知道，语法构式是具有意义的，那么由此我们可以推导出，语法性质上具有相似性的构式在语义性质上也有相似性。
In order to explains how motivation works, Goldberg posits inheritance links within the network of constructions that comprise knowledge of language “construction A motivates construction B iff B inherits from A”. There are four different kinds of inheritance links.
激发与继承之间的关系是：“只有B构式继承了A构式，A构式才能被称为激发了B构式。”为了解释激发是如何工作的，Goldberg提出了四种继承关系。
Polysemy links 多义关系
-Goldberg observes that a given sentence-level construction can be associated with a range of related sense. For example, the ditransitive construction is associated with a range of senses that all share the semantic of TRANSFER, but which also differ in systematic ways. Just like lexical polysemy, constructional polysemy can be modelled in terms of a semantic network.
Goldberg发现，一个句子构式能够具有多个相关意义。例如，双宾语构式能够具有多个与TRANSFER相关的意义，但每个构式都在某些方面与其他构式不同。同词语多义现象一样，构式多义也能够用语义网络来解释。
Subpart links 组成成分关系
-If one construction is a proper subpart of another construction but exists independently, the two constructions are related by a subpart link.
a. Lily flew George to the conference.
b. George flew.
Example a is an instance of the caused motion construction, lexically profiling the argument roles CAUSE, THEME, and GOAL. Example b is an instance of the intransitive motion construction, lexically profiling only the THEME. In this sense, the construction illustrated in b is a subpart of the construction is a.
如果一个构式是另一个构式的组成部分，且前一个构式能够单独存在，那么这两个构式就是通过组成成分关系联系起来的。例如：
a. Lily flew George to the conference.
b. George flew.
例a是一个使役移动构式，凸显了CAUSE, THEME, 和GOAL这三个论元。例b是一个不及物动作构式，凸显了THEME这一个论元。在这种情况下，例b是例a的一个组成成分。
Instance links 例示关系
-An instance link exists where one construction is a special case of a related construction. Take the resultative construction as an example.
a. George drove Lily mad/loopy/round the bend/up the wall.
When the verb drive occurs in this construction, one of a particular set of expressions must fill the result slot as in the example, and the construction takes on an idiomatic reading. If the wrong expressions are chosen to fill the construction, the result is ungrammatical or fails to be recognised as the resultative construction and therefore loses its idiomatic interpretation.
当一个构式是一个相关构式的一个例示时，它们是例示关系。我们以结果构式(resultative construction)为例。
a. George drove Lily mad/loopy/round the bend/up the wall.
当出现动词drive时，某些特定表达才能够填补该构式的空缺，使得该构式具有习语化的意义。如果不合适的表达被用来填补该构式，得到的表达将是不合语法的，或是无法具有结果构式的习语化意义。
Metaphorical extension links 隐喻拓展关系
-Some constructions are metaphorical extensions of other constructions. For example, the resultative construction in (a) is a metaphorical extention of the caused motion construction in (b). The similarity revolves around the interpretation of the result phrase as a type of matephorical GOAL, parallel to the actual GOAL expressed by the PP in the caused motion construction.
a. George tickled her senseless.
b. George threw her onto the sofa.
有些构式是其他构式的隐喻拓展。例如，a的结果构式是b的使役动作构式的隐喻拓展。两者之间的相似性在于，将结果构式中的结果短语理解为隐喻化的GOAL，与使役动作构式中通过PP短语表达的GOAL平行。
To conclude,
constructions can be related in a number of ways within a complex network of inheritance links, and any given construction might be linked to a number of other constructions or families of constructions via a number of different types of links.
总而言之，构式之间可以通过多种继承关系连接起来，一个构式可能通过不同继承关系与许多其他构式连接起来。

Case studies 案例研究

The English ditransitive construction: X causes Y to receive Z
The English caused-motion construction: X causes Y to move Z
The Engilsh resultative construction

Radical Construction Grammar 激进构式语法理论

The Radical Construction Grammar model is developed by Croft, and sets out to explore the implications of linguistic typology for syntactic theory.
激进构式语法模型是Croft提出的，尝试将语言类型学的思想用于句法理论当中。

Taxonomy of constructions 构式的分类

In Croft’s model, everything from a morpheme to a sentence is a construction. See the table below.
在Croft看来，从词素到句子都是构式。如下表。

Emphasis on diversity 关注多样性

Croft argues that instead of taking grammatical universals across the world’s languages as a starting point, we should instead take grammatical diversity as a starting point and build a model that account adequately for patterns of typological variation.
Croft认为，我们不应该以寻找语言间语法共性为出发点，而应该以关注语法多样性为出发点，创立能够合理解释类型上多样性的理论模型。

Five key features of RCG 激进构式语法(RCG)理论的五个关键特征

Primitive units 基本单元
-Firstly, Croft assumes that the construction is the only primitive unit in the grammar. Only overt (which is to say fully substantive) constructions can be recognised as atomic in Croft’s model.
首先，Croft认为，构式是语法中唯一的基本单元。并且，只有实义构式被认为是具有组构性(atomic)的。
-In RCG, word classes do not exist as primitive categories. This means that words cannot be categorised into word classes that have any independent reality. Instead, words are just part of individual constructions.
在RCG中，词类不属于基本范畴。这也就是说，词语不能够被划分为具有独立意义的词类。词语知识单个构式的组成部分。
-In the RCG model, constructions are the primitives, and words classes, as they emerge from constructions, are epiphenomenal.
在RCG模型中，构式是基本的，词类是次要的。
-Croft argues against universal primitives, and argues in favor of language-specific constructions, and in favour of construction-specific elements (grammatical subparts) and components (semantic subparts).
Croft反对普遍(universal)基本单元的说法，他认为构式是因语言而异的(language-specific)，并且认为存在因构式而异的成分(elements, 语法组成部分)和组成部分(components, 语义组成成分)。
Syntactic relations and constituent structure 句法关系和论元结构
-The only syntactic relations admitted in the RCG model are the part-whole relations that hold between the construction as a whole and the syntactic elements that fill it.
RCG构式语法模型中认为只有一种句法关系：部分-整体(part-whole)关系，即构式作为整体，句法成分作为组成填充部分。
-In other wods, this model does not recognise grammatical relations like subject and object as having any independent reality outside of individual constructions. Instead, grammatical functions emerge from constructions.
换句话说，RCG模型认为类似主语和宾语等语法关系只存在于构式之中，在构式之外不具有意义。语法功能是从构式中来的。
-In this model, constituency is conceived in terms of grouping, where grammatical units are identified in terms of contiguity and prosodic unity, and heads receive a semantic characterisation as primary information bearing units or PIBUs.
在RCG模型中，论元被认为是分类的结果，语法单位依据临近性和韵律性被分类。中心成分的语义解释为，主要信息提供单位(primary information bearing units, PIBUs)。
-Croft adopts Langacker’s account of relationships between heads and dependents in terms of semantic valence and in terms of instantiation.
Croft采用了Langacker关于中心词和附属（依存）成分的解释，即语义配价、例示等理论。
Symbolic relations 象征关系
-The form and meaning of a construction are linked in RCG by symbolic relations. In other wors, each construction as a whole is a form-meaning pairing in the same way that each lexical item is a form-pairing in the conventional view of the lexicon.
在RCG模型中，构式的形式和意义通过象征关系联系起来。换句话说，每个构式都是形式-意义结合体，就如同每个词项都是形式-意义的结合体一样。
Funtional prototypes 功能性原型
-This point relates to how RCG describes typological generalisation and variation. Cross-linguistic similarities and differences are described in terms of functional typological prototypes: while referring expressions relate to OBJECTS, attributive expressions relate to PROPERTIES and predicative constructions relate to ACTIONS. OBJECTS, PROPERTIES and ACTIONS are semantic or conceptual categories, and these prototypes underlie the parts of speech in the world’s languages.
这一点论述解释了RCG是如何描述类型相同和不同的。跨语言相似性和不同被描述于功能性类型原型：如，指称表达一般指OBJECTS，定语表达一般指PROPERTIES，谓语构式一般指ACTIONS。OBJECTS, PROPERTIES和ACTIONS都是语义范畴，它们代表了某种词性的原型。
Explaining linguistic universals 解释语言普遍性
-RCG explains linguistic universals not by assuming of a set of universal grammatical primitives, but by assuming a universal conceptual space.
RCG模型解释语言普遍性不是通过提出存在一系列普遍性语法基本单位，而是提出存在普遍概念空间。
-As we have mentioned, many typologists adopt some version of a semantic map model. A semantic map is a language-specific typological pattern which rests upon a universal conceptual space or system of language.
之前提到过，许多类型学家都或多或少认可语义地图模型。语义地图就是，基于普遍概念空间或语言系统，因语言而异的类型特征。
Why “radical”? 为什么是“激进的”？
-Because this approach questions basic assumptions that have defined theoritical and descriptive linguistics through out the history of the displine, such as the existence of word classes and grammatical functions.
因为RCG针对理论语言学和描写语言学中的基本假设提出了疑问，即词类和语法功能的存在。

Embodied Construction Grammar 具身构式语法理论

Embodied Construction Grammar (ECG) is a recent theory of construction grammar developed by Benjamin Bergen and Nancy Chang. This approach assumes that all linguistic units are construction.
具身构式语法理论(ECG)是由Benjamin Bergen和Nancy Chang提出的构式语法理论的新进展。该理论认为所有的语言单位都是构式。

Emphasis on language processing 关注语言处理

In this model, the emphasis is on language processing, particularly language comprehension and understanding. The ECG model focuses on exploring how constructions are processed in on-line or dynamic language comprehension.
该模型的重点在语言处理(language processing)上，尤其是语言理解。ECG模型把注意力放在探索在线动态语言理解过程中构式是如何被处理的。
ECG is centrally concerned with describing how the constructions of a given language related to embodied knowledge in the process of language understanding. Therefore much of the research to date in ECG has been focused on developing a formal language to describe the constructions of a language like English; this formal language also needs to be able to describe the embodied concepts that these constructions give rise to in dynamic language comprehension.
ECG关注在语言理解过程中，构式是如何与具身经验联系起来的。因此，ECG模型中的许多研究的关注点都放在提出一套形式语言，来描述语言中的构式（如英语）；这套形式语言同时还要能够描述在动态语言理解中构式激发的具身概念。

Analysis and simulation 分析和模拟

ECG claims that when a hearer hears an utterance, he or she has two distinct tasks to perform. The first is analysis (parsing), which involves the hearer mapping the stimulus (the utterance) onto the structured inventory of constructions in his or her grammar and recognising which constructions are instantiated by the utterance. The second task is simulation, which involves the activation of conceptual representations that underlie the interpretation of the utterance and the re-enactment of these conceptual representations.
ECG认为，当听话者听到某话语(utterance)时，他/她有两个任务要完成。其一是分析/句法分析(parsing)，即听话者将刺激（即听到的话语）投射到结构化的构式目录/清单(inventory of constructions)上，然后分辨该话语是哪个构式的实际使用例示。之后，第二个任务是模拟。即激活理解该话语所需的概念表征，并再现该概念表征。
According to ECG, the conceptual representations that are accessed and simulated during language understanding are embodied schemas. In other words, it is the hearer’s own embodied experience, which results in conceptual representations of that experience in terms of embodied schemas, that gives rise to these inferences via a simulation process. In this way the hearer mentally re-enacts the event designated by the utterance.
根据ECG，在语言理解过程中获取和模拟的概念表征是具身图式。换句话说，是听话者的具身经验产生了这些以具身图式形式出现的概念表征，进而使模拟过程中产生的推断称为可能。正是以这种方式，听话者再现了说话人话语指称的事件。

Comparing constructional approaches to grammar 对比不同的构式语法理论

Constructional approaches to grammar share two key features in common. Firstly, these approaches recognise grammatical constructions as symbolic units. The second shared feature is the assumption of a structured inventory. All constructional approaches make some statement concerning the nature of relationships between constructions within a complex network of links; these links rest not only upon shared structure, but also upon shared meaning, such as polysemy links or metaphorical extension links.
不同的构式语法理论都在两个方面具有相同之处。首先，这些理论都认为，语法构式使象征性单位。其次，所有的构式语法理论都认为构式之间是存在结构联系的，这些联系不仅在于相同的结构，还在于相同的意义，如多义联系和隐喻拓展联系。
With respect to the differences between constructional approaches, we saw that each approach takes a different position on how the notion of construction is to be defined.
对于这些构式理论的不同，我们首先可以看到，它们对构式概念的定义即是不同的。
A further point of constrast concerns whether or not constructional approaches can be described as usage-based.
其次，它们在是否是基于使用的(usage-based)维度上也是不同的。
Finally, a parameter of comparison between constructional approaches relates to the issue of whether these theories can be described as reductionist or non-reductionist.
-Croft and Cruse describe ECG as non-redutionist.
-In contrast, Kay and Fillmore’s Construction Grammar is reductionist.
最后，这些理论在reductionist和non-reductionist方面也是不同的。Croft认为ECG是non-reductionist的；而Kay等认为自己的构式语法理论是reductionist的。