Main References:

• 一个视频说清整个英语语法体系(重塑你的语法认知框架)
• 【待学习】 英语语法精讲合集 (全面, 通俗, 有趣 | 从零打造系统语法体系)

1. 词性（词类）

词性（词类）Parts of Speech

英语的十大词类：动词、名词、冠词、代词、形容词、数词、副词、介词、叹词、连词

1.1 动词 verbs

1.1.1 充当谓语动词

谓语动词的“三大本领”：

1. 动作时间

动作的发生可能在过去、现在或者将来。

• 现在
• 过去
• 将来
• 过去将来（从过去某个时间点打算将来）

2. 动作状态

动作可能处在已经完成或者正在进行的状态。

• 一般（未说明时）
• 完成
• 进行
• 完成进行（不但完成而且继续）

动作时间和动作状态，两者合在一起称为**“时态”**

四种时间和四种状态可以随意排列组合，理论上就会有16种时态。

3. 动作假设，情感等

3.1 动作的“语气”

3.1.1 虚拟语气

• 用来表示意愿，和事实相反的假设等
• If I were a rabbit … （I 后的 were[不是was] 暗示了我并不是一只兔子）

3.1.2 陈述语气

• I ate a carrot and…

3.1.3 祈使语气

• Eat this carrot and…

1.1.2 充当非谓语动词

1. 非谓语动词

动词除了充当句子的谓语动词以外的其他部分合称为“非谓语动词”，做主语、宾语、表语、补语、定语、状语。

• 非谓语动词几乎可以取代所有的从句，从而简化句子。
• 但是非谓语动词丧失了时态，语气，语态这些本领。
• 动词需要通过变形才能出现在句中（不能直接充当非谓语动词）。

1.1 动词不定式

动词不定式：to+动词原形，和谓语动词原形一样。

如：

• Rabbits eat carrots. （谓语动词原形）
• To eat or not to eat? 动词不定式

1.1.1 动词不定式的语法功能

1. 动词不定式作主语：

   • It is easy to be wise after the event.

   • It is easy to ignore the effect of our acts upon their disposition.

   • It is preferable for journalists to rely on their notions of significance and make their judgments.

2. 动词不定式作宾语：

   • He promised not to tell anyone about it.
   • I think it is hard to answer the question in one go.

3. 动词不定式作状语：

   • This will be particularly true since the energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine a few farmers with high yields.
   • Since the dawn of human ingenuity, people have devised ever more cunning tools to cope with work that is dangerous, boring, burdensome, or just plain nasty.

4. 动词不定式作定语：

   • An important property of a scientific theory is its ability to stimulate further research and further thinking about a particular topic.

1.2 动名词

动名词，动词+ing，和谓语动词的进行状态一样。

如：

• Eating carrots is healthy. 动名词

1.2.1 动名词的语法功能

1. 动名词作主语：
   • Speaking a language does not necessarily mean that someone understands social and cultural patterns.
   • Getting enough vitamins is essential to life.
   • Using a language is not an easy task.
2. 动名词作宾语：
   • He would not tolerate having his lectures interrupted.
   • I am looking forward to hearing from you.
3. 动名词作状语：
   • In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all its possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what.
4. 动名词作定语：
   • A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together within one or two societies, whereas(然而) the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.

1.3 现在分词和过去分词

现在分词，动词+ing，谓语动词的进行状态一样；过去分词和谓语动词的完成状态一样。

如：

• The rabbit is eating. 谓语动词进行状态

• Eating everything, I survived. 现在分词

• The rabbit has eaten. 谓语动词的完成状态

• This is a half-eaten carrot. 过去分词

1.3.1 分词的语法功能

1. 分词做定语

   • After all(毕竟), what is one(有什么) modern form of expression(表达形式) almost completely dedicated to(致力于) depicting(描绘) happiness?
   • The emphasis(强调) on data gathered first-hand, combined with a cross-cultural perspective(跨文化的角度) brought to(使得,进行,对) the analysis of cultures past and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly(明显地) important social science.
   • Databases used by some companies don’t rely on data collected systematically(系统地) but rather lump(无奈地归并) together information from different research projects.
   • The strategy also aims to ensure that carbon in woody material removed from the forests is locked away in the form of solid lumber or burned as biofuel(生物燃料) in vehicles that would otherwise run on fossil fuels(化石燃料).

2. 分词做状语

   • Waiting for a bus, a brick fell on my head.
   • Reading the letter, she burst out crying.
   • Mocked by everybody, he had my sympathy.
   • Exhausted by the walk, he continued his journey.
   • The best lawyers made skyscrapers full of money, tempting ever more students to pile into law schools.

3. 独立主格结构

   独立主格结构的实质：分词的逻辑主语和主句主语 不一致。

   1. 名词+分词

      • Time permitting, we are going to Beijing Botanical Garden. (主句 we，从句 time)

   2. 介词+名词+分词

      • A car roared past, with smoke pouring from the exhaust(排气管). （主句 car，从句 smoke）

   3. 副词+分词

      • Generally speaking, he is an honest person. （主句 he，从句反正不是he）

1.1.3 助动词 Auxiliary Verbs

英语的谓语动词本身往往是不能够独立完成刚才说的哪些本领，以及另外一些其他的本领。而且谓语动词独自也无法完成比如否定，可能性，必须性等意思。

想让谓语动词充分发挥，我们必须用到另一类经常和动词一起用的词，帮助完成任务——助动词。

词汇在做助动词时，是没有意思的，只是用来帮助构成某种结构（所以也叫结构助词），比如：时态，被动语态，疑问句，否定句等。

1. 常见助动词

can，might，have，be，must，do… …

但是许多的助动词特别喜欢伪装，它们除了做助动词（没有实义，只是帮忙谓语动词而已），还可以做实义动词，甚至其他词性。

例子：

can => 易拉罐，might => 力量，musty => 发霉的，do => 做某事，have => 拥有，be => 存在，… …

所以千万不要把助动词和它其他的身份弄混淆。

2. 助动词的使用

举例：eat

1.2 名词 nouns

名词，表人和物。

• Papa Rabbit is a rabbit.

⭐Attention：名词一定需要配合冠词使用。

名词的常用语法功能：做主语、宾语、表语、同位语。详见：3.3.2 名词性从句

举例：

• 主语：This drawing leaves us with a deep impression.
• 宾语：The early bird catches the worm.
• 表语：Confidence in yourself is the first step on the road to success.
• 同位语：LiMing, the most brilliant boy in the class, is admired by his classmates.

1.3 冠词 articles

• Papa Rabbit is a rabbit.

冠词，英语中说明人和事务。

• 定冠词：the
• 不定冠词：a、an
• 零冠词：就是没有冠词

1.3.1 不定冠词a, an使用

元音音素前用an，辅音音素前用a，不靠元音字母。

• a rabbit /ə ˈræbɪt/ an apple /ən ˈæp(ə)l/

• a university /ə ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəti/ an hour /ən ˈaʊə®/

  元音：

• 单元音：/iː/ /i/ /ɪ/ /uː/ /u/ /ʊ/ /e/ /æ/ /ɒ/(office英式/ɒfis/) /ɑː/(office美式/ˈɑːfɪs/) /ɔ/ /ɔː/ /ɜː/ /ə/ /ʌ/

• 双元音：/eɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /aɪ/ /aʊ/ /əʊ/ /ʊə/ /eə/ /ɪə/

1.3.2 名词与冠词的误区

1. 可数名词前面一般要加冠词；
2. 可数名词+定冠词，表示特指； The dog is a friend.
3. 单数可数名词+不定冠词，表示类指； I like an apple.
4. 复数可数名词也可以表示类指； I like apples. Governments should protect dogs.
5. 不可数名词一般不用定冠词，除非特指； Education is important to a person.(The education 就变成强调、特指的意思了)

1.4 代词 pronouns

代词，替代人和物。

• I am a rabbit.

1.5 形容词 adjectives

形容词，形容人和物。

• I am a smart rabbit.

名词的常用语法功能：做定语、表语、补语、状语。详见：3.3.2的定语从句

举例：

• 表语：She is beautiful.
• 宾补：We find the NETEM difficult.
• 状语：The girl stood there, full of fear(形容词短语).
• 定语：He is a handsome boy.

1.6 数词 numerals

数词，表示数量。

• I ate two carrots.

1.7 副词 adverbs

副词，指在句子中表示行为或状态特征的词，用以修饰动词、形容词、其他副词或全句，表示时间、地点、程度、方式等概念。

• I ate two carrots quickly.

1.7.1 副词分类

副词可分为：时间副词、频率副词、地点副词、方式副词、程度副词、疑问副词、关系副词、连接副词、表顺序、表完成的副词。

副词的常见用法：

1. 时间频率副词

   • 频率副词：主要表示“什么时候”、“经常与否”，形容动作所做的次数或频繁程度。

     除了表达某事发生的频率之外，频率副词与一般副词相似。频率副词放在主动词前面，放在be动词后面。

     The items on sale in the supermarket are often sold out quickly.

   • 时间副词：能够表达出某事发生的时间。它可以表达出一个具体的时间，例如两天、昨天、三个星期前等。虽然时间副词有时引导一个句子，但它常常放在句末。例如：

     We’ll let you know our decision next week.下周我们会通知你我们的决定。

     I flew to Dallas three weeks ago.三个星期前我飞去了达拉斯。

   now， then， often， always， usually， next， after last day， already(已经)， generally(一般地)， frequently（频繁 ）， seldom/hardly（很少的）， ever， never， yet， soon， too， immediately（立即）， finally， shortly（很快）， before， ago， sometimes， yesterday， once， twice， lately， recently， personally， today……yet

2. 地点副词

   表示地点与位置关系的副词，用来说明动作发生的地点。

   例如：Tom will go anywhere with his dog.汤姆去哪都带着他的狗。

   here， there， everywhere， nowhere， anywhere， somewhere， in， out， inside， outside， above， below， up， down， back， forward（向前的）， home， upstairs(楼上的)， downstairs， across， along， round， around， near， off， past， up， away， on.……

3. 方式副词

   方式副词能够表达出某人完成某事的方式，它最常与行为动词搭配使用。

   方式副词可以放在句末，或者直接放在动词后。例如：Jack drives very carefully.杰克开车非常小心。

   carefully， properly(适当地)， anxiously(焦虑地)， suddenly， normally(正常地)， fast， well， calmly(冷静地)， politely(有礼貌地)， proudly(自豪地)， softly， warmly， slowly， badly， hard， bravely……

4. 程度副词

   程度副词通常表示某事完成的程度。它们通常位于句末。例如：They like playing golf a lot.他们很喜欢打高尔夫。

   much，little， very，rather(相当)，so，too，still，quite，perfectly(完美地)，enough， extremely(非常)， entirely(整个)，almost， slightly(细小地)， hardly.……

5. 疑问副词

   how， when， where， why……

6. 关系副词

   when， where， why……

7. 连接副词

   therefore(因此)，moreover(此外)，however，otherwise(另外的)，then，when ，where，how，why……

8. 表顺序的副词

   first， then， next， finally， afterward， primarily……

9. 完成时的副词

   already， ever， just， never， since， yet， recently……

1.7.2 副词常见误区

1. 副词混用成连词

   常见的就是连词副词：therefore(因此)，moreover(此外)，however，otherwise(另外的)，then，when ，where，how，why……他们并不能连接两句。

   • He made good preparation for the postgraduate entrance examination, therefore he was admitted to Peking University.

     上面用therefore连接两句话是错误的，要么分成两句，要么用分号连接两句，要么therefore改成so。

1.8 介词 prepositions

英语前置词/介词（preposition ，adposition的一种，还有后置词postposition），表示名词、代词等与句中其它词的关系，在句中不能单独作句子成分。

介词后面一般有名词、代词或相当于名词的其他词类、短语或从句作其宾语，表示与其他成分的关系。

• I ate two carrots with chopsticks.

1.8.1 介词分类

按构成分

前置词表示它后面的名词或代词（或相当于名词的其他词类、短语或从句）与其他句子成分的关系。前置词通常位于名词或代词之前。

（注意：前置词是一种虚词，不能单独作句子成分，只能用在一个名词、代词或相当于名词的结构之前，可以与后面的词一起构成介词短语。）

1. 简单前置词：

   in， on， with， by， for， at， about， under， of， to等。(to为介词，意为“习惯(做)……”，后接名词，代词或动名词形式)

2. 合成前置词：

   由两个单词组成的介词。into， within， throughout， inside， outside， without等。

3. 重叠前置词：

   from among 从…当中，from behind 从…后面，until after 直至…之后，at about 在大约…，after about 在大约…之后 等。

4. 短语前置词：

   一个或两个简单介词 和 一个或几个其他词类 构成一个短语，作用相当于一个介词，这就叫做短语介词。这类介词的末尾总是一个简单介词。

   如 according to， because of， by means of， in addition to， in front of， in spite of 等。

5. 分词前置词：

   有极少数介词的词尾是“-ing”，形似现在分词（其中也有些可做分词）。常用的有：considering， regarding， respecting， including。

1.8.2 介词常见误区

1. 混淆to 和 to

   • 介词to：

     be key to …是…的关键， contribute to 有助于…， give rise to， lead to， conform to， due to，… …

   • 不定式符号to：

     claim to， endeavour to == try to， demand to，… …

2. 介词混淆成连词

   介词一般后面只能接名词或名词性质的短语，不能加句子（除介词后面加宾语从句外）。

   容易当连词的介词（短语）： despite/in spite of/due to/because of/ …despite 尽管

3. 常用介词需牢记

   时间介词：

   • on：日期，具体的上下午 on July 14th，on a fine morning
   • in：用于表示月、年、四季、早晚
   • at：时刻，固定搭配 at noon， at night

1.9 叹词 interjections

叹词，表示感叹。

• Ah, the carrot is tasty!

1.10 连词 conjunctions

连词，用于连接词和句。

• I ate two carrots and a potato because I was hungry.

1.10.1 连词常见误区

1. 同一句子中，连词不能成对出现；

   常见成对出现的连词错误：because…so…，although…but…，…

   • Although we are into our idols, but we should keep a clear head. （两个连词去一）（be into sb. 喜欢某人）

2. 逗号不能连句，分号可以；

   • They get married, I’m happy. （I 前需要加上and/so）

   • He proposed(求婚) to her, and she was very happy. => He proposed to her; she was…（可用分号连句）

2. 句子成分

句子成分 Clause Elements

注意：句子成分 != 词类

举例：句子成分中最特殊的似乎就是谓语动词这一类，其他成分可能是不同的词类，但是谓语动词显然只可能是动词。

2.1 主语

是谓语讲述的对象，一般由名词、代词、不定代词、从句(主语从句)、动名词(v-ing)等来充当，句子叙述的主体，一般位于句首。

• What you said is right. 主语从句

• That the seas are being overfished has been known for years. 主语从句

2.2 谓语

谓语定义就是，说明主语动作或者状态的词语。或者理解为，说明主语做什么、主语是什么、主语怎么样的词语。

2.2.1 谓语动词的类别

• 不及物动词 intransitive verbs
• 及物动词
  • 单及物动词 monotransitive verbs
  • 双及物动词 ditransitive verbs
  • 复杂及物动词 complex-transitive verbs
• 系动词 linking verbs

1. 不及物动词

可以独立完成的动作，没有承受者的动词。Papa Rabbit sleeps.

如果要加宾语，则要加介词。He disagrees with her points.

2. 单及物动词

有1个动作的承受者。

• Papa Rabbit likes you.

3. 双及物动词

有2个动作承受者。两个承受者分别是直接宾语(direct object)和间接宾语(indirect object)。

• Papa Rabbit teaches you English.

区分直宾和间宾：如果删除后句意依然通顺，则删除的是直宾(English)，反之是间宾(you)。

4. 复杂及物动词

只有1个动作承受者，但这个动词必须要有个补充承受者的信息，句意才能完整。

• Papa Rabbit considers you smart.

5. 系动词/连系动词

非“动作”，其描述的动作与我们狭义上说的“动作不同”，以is为代表的一类词，实际作用就是把这个动词之后的信息（性质、状态）赋予给前面的主语，像这样的赋予主语某种性质状态的“划等号”的动词，叫做“连系动词”or“系动词”（linking verbs）。

• Papa Rabbit is tall. / Papa Rabbit is in the room. / Papa Rabbit looks tall. / Papa Rabbit smells nice.

有哪些系动词:

1. 状态系动词

   用来表示主语状态，只有be（am，is，are）一词，例如：

   • He is a teacher. （is 与 补足语一起说明主语的身份）

2. 持续系动词

   用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度，主要有keep， remain， stay， lie， stand，例如：

   • He always keeps silent at meetings.

3. 表象系动词

   用来表示“看起来像”这一概念，主要有seem， appear， look，例如：

   • He looks tired.

4. 感官系动词

   感官系动词主要有feel， smell， sound， taste， see， watch， look，例如：

   • This kind of cloth feels very soft.

5. 变化系动词

   这些系动词表示主语变成什么样，变化系动词主要有become， grow， turn， fall， get， go， come， run，例如：

   • He became mad after that.

注意：

不及物动词和系动词没有被动语态。

• What happened last night? （happen是不及物，没有 What was happend…）

• It tastes delicious. （taste是系动词，没有 It is tasted …）

2.2.2 简单谓语、复合谓语

1. 简单谓语

一个实义动词或者一个动词短语都可以构成简单的谓语。

• 实义动词，就是表示“有实际意义”的动词，用来区别系动词，助动词，情态动词。

• 动词短语/复合动词：动词和另一个单词或者几个单词构成的词组。

  动词短语虽然由几个词语构成，但实际只表示一个动作。如“look after”表示“照顾”且仅仅是一个动作，所以动词短语就相当于一个动词的作用。

常见的简单动词和动词短语：say、talk、speak、type、eat、drink、play、buy、look at、look after、get up等等，以上任何一个实义动词或动词短语都可以作谓语。

2. 复合谓语

复合谓语：简单谓语+其他词语，共同作谓语的情况。

主要有下面三种形式：

1. 情态动词+实义动词或者动词短语的原形

   • I can speak Cantonese/Mandarin. 我会说广东话/普通话
   • I can look after her 我可以照顾她。

   “can”就是一个情态动词， “can speak ”和 “can look after”都是复合谓语。这里涉及到情态动词的情况。

2. 助动词+实义动词或者动词短语的原形

   • I will buy a new book tomorrow. 我明天要买一本新书。 (一般将来时态)
   • I will get up early tomorrow.我明天要早起。(一般将来时态)

   “will buy”和“will get up”都是复合谓语。

3. 助动词+其他的动词形式（be+ doing 或Have/has+ done）

   • I am working now.我现在正在工作。（现在进行时态）
   • I have learned English for 10 years.我已经学了10年英语了。（现在完成时态）

   “am working”和“have learned”都是复合谓语

2.3 宾语

宾语往往表示动作支配的对象，并且总是处在动词的后头。宾语可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、动名词、宾语从句等来担任。

• Show me（间接宾语）your tickets（直接宾语）, please. 请让我看看你的票。

宾语一般用在(单)及物动词的后面，表示行为动词所涉及的对象。当然还存在双及物动词句型中的双宾语，直接宾语和间接宾语。以及复杂及物动词句型中的宾语和宾补。

• 名词作宾语
  • Show your passport, please. 请出示护照。
• 代词作宾语
  • She didn’t say anything. 她什么也没说。（此处为不定代词）
  • I consider it(形式宾语) important(宾补) to capture her heart(真正的宾语).
• 数词作宾语
  • How many do you want? — I want two. 你要几个？－ 我要两个。
  • How much milk do you want? — A bottle. 你要多少牛奶？— 一瓶。
• 名词化的形容词作宾语
  • They sent the injured to the hospital.他们把伤员送到医院。
• 不定式或ing形式作宾语
  • I decided to go shopping.我决定去购物。
  • I enjoy working with you. 我和你们一道工作很愉快。
• 从句作宾语
  • Did you write down what he said? 你把他的话写下了没有？
  • He takes it(形式宾语) for granted that women are meant to be loved, not to be understood(宾语从句).

2.4 宾语补语/宾补

宾语补语/宾补 object complement，在**“主语+复杂及物动词+宾语+宾语补语”的句型中使用到，补充的信息叫做“补足语”or“补语”（complement），更确切说是“宾语补语”**（object complement）。

举例：

• It drives her crazy(宾补).
• I saw him playing basketball(宾补) yesterday.

宾语补语和主语补语都是补语，因使用的对象不同，又有了不同的命名区别，对应指定的使用场景。

2.5 主语补语，表语

主语补语，subject complement；表语，predicative。

主系表结构：传统语法把系词后的成分称为表语，现代语法把系词后的成分称为主语补足语。

• He was asked to come.
  • 在传统语法和现代语法中，不定式“to come”都叫做主语补足语。
• He is tall.
  • “tall”在传统语法为表语，在现代语法为主语补足语。

因此传统语法是区分主语补语和表语的，而现代语法将其都成为主语补语。我这里就按照传统语法来学。

主语补语或者表语，是补充主语含义而必须加上的部分（可以是词，或者短语，甚至是从句）。

有**“主语+谓语+主语补语…”，“主系表”**两种句型。

举例：

• He was seen playing basketball(主语补语) yesterday.（含有宾语补足语的句子改为被动语态后，原来的宾语成主语，原来的宾语补足语改称为主语补足语）
• You are my sunshine(表语).

2.6 定语

定语 Attributive，主要用来修饰主语或者宾语。可由以下词性词汇担任：adj./n./to do./doing/done/介宾短语/定语从句(后置定语)。

举例：

• adj.：The little white rabbit ate a large carrot.
• 前置定语，后置定语：I have a lot of homework to do.
• adj.，后置定语(doing)： The young man standing in the front of the classroom is No.1.
• 介宾短语： The computer on the table is mine.
• 定语从句： The singer who was popular all over China disappeared for a long time.
• 定语从句： The songs which are sung by Dao Lang were popular.

2.7 状语

状语一般由副词、介词短语、分词和分词短语、不定式、相当于副词的词或短语来担当。其位置一般放在句首，但也可放在句末或句中。

状语 Adverbial，主要用来修饰谓语动词，形容词，副词或全句的词，说明时间，地点，程度，方式等概念。

• 状语的类别：
  • 时间、地点、频率、程度、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、方式、方面、伴随。

举例：

• 时间：

  • I get up at five(介词短语).

• 地点：

  • We are having breakfast in the dining room(介词短语).

  注：地点状语除表位置外，还可以表“出发”“去向”“距离”等。如：

  • Are you glad to be going back to school? 返回学校你感到高兴吗?

  • They lived many miles from the town. 他们住的地方离镇子好几英里远。

• 频率：

  • I love you three thousand times.

• 程度：

  • The rabbit ate quickly.

  • To a great extent(在很大程度上), it is not fair.

• 原因：

  • The boy was praised for his bravery(勇气)(介词短语).

• 目的：

  • I talk in order to understand; I teach in order to learn.

  • They went out for a walk.

• 结果：

  • He talked his wife into buying a car.

  • The box is too heavy for me to lift.

  • It rained heavily, causing severe flooding(洪水泛滥) in that country.

  • He went to Africa in 1963, never to come back.

• 条件：

  • If I were a boy even just for a day, I’d roll out of bed(get up faster) in the morning. (if从句引导条件状语/状语从句)

  • United, we stand； divided, we fall. 团结则存，分裂则亡。

  • Weather permitting, we’ll have the match tomorrow.

• 让步：

  • For all his money(虽然他很富有), he’s a very lonely man.
  • With all his efforts, he lost the match.
  • Knowing all this, they made me pay for the damage.

• 方式：

  • We came on the bus.

  • You must pay the bill in cash.

  • I watched the game on television.

  • We see with our eyes and hear with our ears.

  • I heard of the job through a newspaper advertisement.

• 方面：

  • She is very weak in physics.
  • China is very rich in natural resources.
  • This is better in every way than that.
  • The bridge is 2500 meters in length and 150 meters in height.

• 伴随：

  • I slept with the window open.

• She said goodbye with tears in her eyes.

  • He ran up to her breathing heavily.

• He rushed into the room, his face covered with sweat.

2.8 同位语

同位语 Appositive，

主要用来再把主语或宾语说一遍。

• Papa Rabbit, an English teacher, eats carrots.

  Papa Rabbit 和 English teacher 是同一事务的不同解释，具有相同的地位。

3. 造句：英语语法的目的

3.1 简单句

3.1.1 简单句

简单句（Simple Sentence）

长句拆解到不能再拆，并且拆了句意会不完整的“基本句子”。

除去感叹句、省略句、（向整句提问）问句，其他的句子都是在说什么怎么样；而什么、怎么样就是句子成分（Clause Elements）。

什么+怎么样 => 主语Subject+谓语Predicate，主语与谓语是最基本的两种句子成分，几乎所有的英语句子结构都是主语+谓语。

• 主语：一般是人或物，不管抽象还是具体；

• 谓语：都有一个广义的"动作/发生了什么事儿"

  • 动作：不是指狭义的要"动起来"的"动作"，而是广义的动作是指语法中的动词Verbs。

  谓语与谓语动词是有区别的，句子主语后面的余下句子部分就是谓语，谓语动词只是谓语的一部分。

3.1.2 五大基本句子结构

五大基本句子结构 对应了 动作（谓语动词）的五大类别：

• 不及物动词 =》 主语+不及物动词
• 及物动词
  • 单及物动词 =》 主语+单及物动词+宾语
  • 双及物动词 =》 主语+双及物动词+间宾+直宾
  • 复杂及物动词 =》 主语+复杂及物动词+宾语+宾补
• 系动词 =》 主语+系动词+表语

1. 主+谓/vi.

可以独立完成的动作，没有承受者的动词。

• Papa Rabbit sleeps.

2. 主+谓/单vt.+宾

有1个动作的承受者，宾语。

• Papa Rabbit likes you.

3. 主语+谓/双vt.+间宾+直宾

有2个动作承受者，直接宾语和间接宾语。

区分直宾和间宾：

直接宾语表示动作的承受者，一般是物；间接宾语表示动作是受影响的事物或人，一般是人。

还有如果删除后句意依然通顺，则删除的是直宾(English)，反之是间宾(you)。

• Papa Rabbit teaches you English.

4. 主语+谓/复杂vt.+宾+宾补

只有1个动作承受者，且需要**“宾语补语”**补充信息，句意才能完整。

• Papa Rabbit comsiders you smart.

**区分双及物 与 复杂及物：**如果去掉宾补，复杂及物的句子会不完整；而双及物句子去掉直宾，意思仍然完整。

5. 主语+系动词+表语

系动词实际作用就是把这个动词之后的信息（性质、状态）赋予给前面的主语，其后面的补充信息就是“表语”。

• Papa Rabbit is tall. / Papa Rabbit is in the room. / Papa Rabbit looks tall. / Papa Rabbit smells nice.

3.2 复合句/并列句

复合句（Compound Sentence）

复合句就是对句子进行简单地叠加，句子之间通过连接词连接起来，分句间的关系是平等的。

3.2.1 常见连接词

• 顺接：
  • and， both…and…， not only…but also…， not only…but…as well， as well as，
• 转折：
  • but，whereas(但是/却,侧重前后对比)，yet，
• 选择：
  • … or…，either…or…，neither…nor…，
• 因果：
  • because， so，

3.3 复杂句

复杂句（Complex Sentence）

复杂句对句子是进行相互嵌套，句子之间是从属关系。

3.3.1 主句和从句

• 主句 Main Clause
• 从句 Subordinate Clause
  • 从句就是把简单句子修改后，充当另一个句子（不一定是主句，句子可以套多层）的句子成分。

3.3.2 复杂句类型

1. 名词性从句

名词性从句类别：

• 主干类从句：主语从句，宾语从句，表语从句；
• 修饰类从句：同位语从句。

主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句，具有名词的性质，合称为名词性从句。

常用连接词

• that：无实义
• whether/if：表是否
• 特殊疑问词：表状态
  • 一类：
    • when：表时间
    • where：表地点
    • how：表方式（how+从句:如何…），表程度（how+adj./adv.+从句:多么…）
    • why：表原因
  • 二类：
    • what、 who、 whom、 whose

特殊疑问句第二类引导词(连接词)：连接从句为非完整句，引导词在从句中做主语或宾语；其余引导词连接完整的从句。

1.1 主语从句

主语从句位置：句首，句末（含有形式it）。

1.1.1 普通主语从句

• Why he told me the secret is clear now.
• That the plates are moving is now beyond dispute.
• How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information. （how表程度）

why, that, how 连接的都是完整句。

普通主语从句变为形式主语：

• That she is into her idol is known to all. [be into sb. 喜欢某人] => It is known to all that she is into her idol.

1.1.2 形式主语it

• It is + adj. + that引导的主语从句

  • But it’s obvious that a majority of the president’s advisers still don’t take global warming seriously.
  • It’s no surprise that Jennifer Senior’s insightful, provocative magazine cover story, “I Love My Children, I Hate My Wife,” is arousing much chatter.

• It is + done + that引导的主语从句

  • It’s said that …/It’s suggested that …/It’s considered that …/It’s believed that …

1.2 宾语从句

• He has made clear the facts(宾语).

• He has made clear what they did yesterday. (变为宾语从句， what连接非完整的从句,充当宾语)

1.2.1 宾语从句出现位置

• 主语+谓语+宾语从句
  • This may also explain why we are not usually sensitive to our smell.[谓语：情态动词+动词：may+explain]
• 主语+谓语（双宾动词）+间宾（人）+直宾（宾语从句）
  • She told me that she fell in love with a handsome boy.
  • Users could tell advertisers(广告商) that they did not want to be followed.
• 主语+谓语+it(形式宾语)+宾补+that宾语从句⭐
  • That kind of activity makes it less likely(使得…不太可能) that court’s decisions will be accepted as impartial(公正judgmentsnts.
• 主语+谓语+介词+宾语从句
  • She is worried about whether she is gaining weight.
• 主语+系动词+adj.+宾语从句⭐
  • I am not sure whether he loves me.
  • I am certain that he will come.

1.3 表语从句

• It is a question(表语).

表语从句：

• The discussion is whether the book is worth reading.
• The truth is that he looks much younger than his brother.
• The irony(讽刺) of the historian’s craft is that its practitioners(从业者) always know that their efforts are but(知识) contributions to an unending process.
• What is harder to establish is whether the productivity revolution that businessmen assume they are presiding over is real.
  • the productivity revolution that businessmen assume…(定从，that做宾语)
  • Businessmen assume that they are presiding over(定从，that做宾语).
• Galileo’s greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around earth.

1.4 同位语从句

1.4.1 何为同位语

同位语：在名词旁对其进行解释。

• Yihan, an English teacher, is giving a class.
• I have just received a letter from my brother, Tim.

注意：

1. 同位语一般由名词（结构）来充当（名词、动词不定式、动名词、同位语从句）；
2. 同位语的功能：解释；
3. 同位语删去后，不影响句子结构的完整性。

1.4.2 同位语从句

• We found out the murderer, Tom(同位语).

  We found out the fact that he was killed.

• The news is true.

  The news that she made is true.

1.4.3 同位语引导词

⭐一般为that(90%)，不做成分且不能省略；也可用whether/why/…，但不常用。

1.4.4 同位语从句出现位置

• 抽象名词之后（一般情况）
  • （face， news， idea， truth， hope， suggestion， question， problem， doubt， fear， belief，…）
  • The belief that education is indispensable to all children originated from the optimistic attitude of industrialized countries.
• 分隔式同位语从句——特殊的同位语从句
  • He got a piece of news from Mary that Bob had gotten rid of single life. [一般同位语是贴着的，这里就分开了]

2. 定语从句

2.1 定语从句的构成

• He loves the girl who is beautiful.

  the girl：先行词，被修饰的名词(结构)，先于定语从句；who：关系词/引导词

2.2 定语从句的类别

从修饰的语义紧密与否的角度可分为：限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句。

• 限定性定语从句：不能省略，否则不完整，与先行词关系紧密，所以不用逗号；
• 非限定性定语从句：描述、补充作用，与先行词关系不紧密，因此可用逗号分隔。

表象区别：限定性定语从句（设逗号），非限定性定语从句（没逗号）；本质区别：先行词的（具体or广泛）范围是否明确。

举例：

• The man, whose IQ was said to be lower than 85, was elected as the president, which surprised the world.
• Do you remember the teacher who taught us English vocabulary?

2.3 关系词/引导词

定语从句的引导词可分为关系代词和关系副词两种。

a. 关系代词

关系代词：that、which、who、whom、whose、as、than。

• 关系代词在从句中做主语、宾语、表语、定语；同时做宾语时，关系代词可省。

  关系代词可分为 必要成分关系词：who whom which that；非必要成分关系词：whose when where why

  必要成分(主语 宾语 表语)，从句缺少关系代词会句意不完整；非必要成分(定语 状语)，从句缺少不影响句意，仅是修饰作用。

  • The one who was talking to you a minute ago is a professor. （who做主语，先行词one）
  • I walked to the gate that opened towards the lake. （that作主语，先行词gate）
  • As is known to everybody, the moon travels around the earth once every month. （as作主语，指代主句）
  • The reason that she gives is unbelievable. （that做宾语，可省）
  • This is the house which we bought last month. （which做宾语，可省）
  • The man whom I met yesterday is Jim． （whom做宾语，先行词man，可省）
  • This is the pen which he bought yesterday. （which做宾语，先行词pen，可省）
  • He wants a room whose window looks out over the sea. （whose做定语，先行词room）

• 关系代词who，whom，whose的区别

  • who、whom只用于指人；who在定语从句中做主语，whom在定语从句中做宾语。

    who可代替whom作宾语，但介词后面必须用whom。

    • She said she huffed(蔑视) the persons who flattered(讨好) her. （who指人，做主语）

      The man who / whom you met just now is called Jim. （who/whom指人，做宾语，所以who whom皆可）

      She brought with her three friends, none of whom I had ever met before. （whom指人，做宾语，虽做宾语，但有介词所以用whom）

  • whose既可指人，也可指事或物，在定语从句中主要用做定语。

    • This is the woman whose name is known all over the country. （whose指人，作定语，谁的）

b. 关系副词

关系副词：when、where、why、whereby(表方式；凭此,借以)；关系副词不在从句中充当成分。

• The day when we stop learning is the day when we die.
• Literature is the place where the past meets the present to contemplate(考虑,思考) the future.
• Schools have always been in a society where practical is more important than intellectual.
• There is the so-called(所谓的) a big deal, where institutional(机构的) subscribers pay for access to a collection of online journal titles through site-licensing agreements.
• That’s one reason why we have launched(发布) Arc, a new publication dedicated to the near future.
• The definition also excludes(排除) the majority of teachers, despite the fact that teaching has traditionally been the method whereby many intellectuals(知识分子) earn their living.

c. 介词+关系代词 = 关系副词：

介词+which / whom：从句中的介词提前，当涉及修饰对象时。

• 如：on which = when，表示当在某天时

举例：

• High growth rates(高增长率) increased the chances for academic innovation(创新); they also weakened the forms and processes by which teachers and students are admitted into a community of scholars during periods of stability or slow growth. 他们同样削弱了老师和学生在发展稳定和缓慢增长时期被接纳为学术群体的形式和过程。

2.4 as 引导的定语从句

a. as引导限定性定语从句的条件

如所修饰的名词前有such， the same， as出现，后面的从句将有as引导。

• He’ll repeat such questions as are discussed in the book.

• Such a student as works hard will be sure to succeed.

• They made the same mistake as others would have made on such an occasion.

• He tried to make as few mistakes as he could avoid.

• Besides, this is unlikely to produce the needed number of every kind of professional in a country as large as ours and where the economy is spread over so many states and involves so many international corporations.

  两句并列的定语从句用and相连，都是修饰"country"。

b. as引导非限定性定语从句

as引导非限定性定语从句和which相似，往往指代一整句话。不过位置相对比较灵活，可以位于先行词之前、之后或者中间，而which引导的非限定性定语从句只能位于先行词之后。

• As is true of any developed society, in America a complex set of cultural signals, assumptions, and conventions underlines all social relationships.

  与任何发达社会一样，在美国，所有的社会关系都受到一系列复杂的文化信号、假设和习俗的影响。

画图写作作文常用句型：（如上图所示，…）

• As is shown in the pictures, …
• As is seen from the chart, …
• As is vividly portrayed(描绘) in the cartoon above, …

2.5 than引导定语从句

than引导的定语从句有如下用法特点：

1. than可作关系代词引导定语从句，在从句中充当主语或宾语；
2. than前面的主句需有形容词的比较级形式；
3. 比较级所修饰的名词即为先行项。

例句：

• She donated(捐赠) more than could be expected.
• His help is more valuable than was supposed.
• There is more money than is needed.
• The Milky Way(银河) is made of more stars than anybody can count.
• We must not have more furniture in our rooms than is required for convenience.
• They came earlier than was expected.

习题：There ought to be less anxiety over the perceived risk of getting cancer than ______ in the public mind today.
A. exists　B. exist　 C. existing　 D. existed

【答案】A；根据以上分析我们知道，这个句子是than引导的定语从句；上文说过的than的用法特点“比较级所修饰的名词即为先行项”，所以可以判断出定语从句的先行项是名词anxiety；又因为先行项是单数形式，所以谓语动词应为exists这一单三形式，故正确答案为A

P.S. 传统语法认为，该语法现象是than引导的比较状语从句省略了主语或宾语it，如：

• His help is more valuable than（it）was supposed.

2.6 区分同位语与定语的that从句

• 同位语从句：解释

  • 引导词在从句中不做成分，不能省略。

  • The news that she has a crush on him is true.

    “she has a crush on him”，是个完整的句子

• 定语从句：修饰

  • 在从句中做成分，作宾语时that可省略。

  • The news that he told me is true.

3. 状语从句

状语类别：时间⭐、地点、原因⭐、结果⭐、目的、条件⭐、让步⭐、比较、方式。

主从句顺从关系：时间、地点、原因、结果、目的、条件、方式；主从句转折关系：让步；比较状语不一定，可多可少也可以一样。

重点学引导词

• 引导词：
  • 连词：
    • When I first saw her, I fell in love with her.
    • As time goes by,…
    • I have made up my mind to study hard since I came here.
  • 特殊连词：副词的多义
    • (一…就…)immediately, directly, instantly
    • I came immediately I had heard the news.
• 多义的as：
  • 时间：随着
  • 原因：由于
  • 让步：虽然，尽管，即使
  • 方式：似乎，好像，正如
  • 比较：和…一样（as…as）

3.1 时间状语从句

常用引导词：when， while(当…时)， as(随着)， before， after， since(自从)， till， until； the moment， the minute， the day， every time；（一…就…）as soon as， no sooner…then…， hardly…when， scarcely…when(scarcely=hardly)。

A until B： A在B之前 = A before B

Note A until B： 在B之前没有A = 直到B之后才有A = A after B

a. 连词引导词

• Men and women show different inclinations(意愿、趋势) when faced with stress. （修饰inclination）
• While computers offer these conveniences to consumers, they have many advantages for sellers too. （修饰主句）
• As was discussed before(定语从句), it was not until the 19th century that the newspaper became the dominant pre-electronic medium, following in the wake of the pamphlet(小册子) and the book and the company of the periodical(期刊). （修饰that从句）
• Even before the invention of the electric light bulb(电灯泡), the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction(科幻小说) that would foreshadow(预示) many ethical(道德的) questions to be raised by technologies yet to come. （修饰主句）

b. 短语引导词

• As soon as you awaken, identify what is upsetting about the dream.
• I had hardly/scarcely gotten home when it began to rain.
  • 主语+had hardly/scarcely done(过去完成时)… when+从句主语+did(一般过去时)…
• I had no sooner gotten home than it began to rain.

c. 时间名词引导词

• The baby starts crying the minute he sees his father.
• Every time you answer a question you eliminate a possibility.
• When it comes to Alan, everyone likes him.

3.2 让步状语从句

a. though系列

常见引导词：though, although, even though/even if(即使)。

主句前不可用but，但可以用yet/still。

• The panel then informally accepted several general conclusions, although some details have not been settled.
• The defining term of intelligence in humans still seems to be the IQ score, even though IQ tests are not given as often as they used to be.
• Although it is toilsome to strive for dreams, (yet/still) we must persist in studying.

b. while系列

常用引导词：while(虽然,尽管)

• Many others, while (they are) not addicted or mentally ill, simply lack the everyday survival skills needed to turn their lives around.

• Strangely, some people find that they can smell one type of flower but not another, whereas(然而,但是)/while(虽然) others are sensitive to the smells of both flowers.

• I have excluded him because, while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems, he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.

  我把他排除在外是因为，虽然他的成就可能有助于解决道德问题，但他所承担的任务只是处理这些问题的事实方面。

c. no matter系列

引导词：no matter what/who/which/when/how

• No matter what happens, he will not change his mind.
• No matter who breaks the law, he will get punished.
• No matter how complicated the problems may seem to be, he always finds ways to solve them.
• However/No matter how farfetched and unreasonable their principles may seem today, it is possible that in years to come they may be regarded as normal.

d. as系列

as系列=>倒装写法

1. 第一类：形容词/副词/分词/名词(无冠词)/短语+as+主语+谓语动词
   • King as he was, he was unhappy.
   • Young as he is, he knows what career to go into.
   • Stupid as it sounds, everybody shows no objection to it.
   • Hard as it is raining, I’m going out for a walk.
   • Surrounded by the enemy as we were, we managed to march forward.
2. 第二类：动词原形+as+主语+助动词(may/might, will/would, can/could, do/does/did)
   • Object as you may, I’ll go. （尽管你反对，但我还是要去。）
   • Try as he might, he couldn’t solve the problem. （尽管他努力了，但他还是解决不了这个问题。）
   • Fail as he did, he would not lose his mind. （尽管他失败了，但他不会失去理智。）

3.3 条件状语从句

a. if 和 unless

• If(如果) winter comes, can spring be far behind?
• A man can’t ride your back unless(除非) it is bent.

b. only if 和 if only

引导词：only if：只有； if only：只要，要是…多好。

• He can continue to support himself and his family only if he produces a surplus(资产盈余).

• If only I had another chance!

• If you were to examine the birth certificates of every soccer player in 2006’s World Cup tournaments, you would most likely find a noteworthy quirk.

  如果你要检查2006年世界杯比赛中每一位足球运动员的出生证明，你很可能会发现一个值得注意的怪事。

c. 短语引导词

常用引导词：suppose/supposing(that)(假设,如果), assuming(that)(假设,如果), provided/providing(that)(倘若,假使,如果), as(so) long as(只要…), in the event that(如果…), on condition that(在…条件下)等等。

• So long as you work hard enough, an iron rod can be ground into a needle.
• Suppose/Supposing that it rains, can we play football indoors?
• Farmers will have a good harvest, assuming the weather is favorable(有利的,良好的).
• Provided/Providing we get good weather it will be a successful holiday.

3.4 原因状语从句

a. 单词连词

引导词：because, since(因为), as(由于), for(因为,接句子)

• Criticism and self-criticism are necessary because it helps us to find and correct our mistakes.
• Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to turn out graduates who are as qualified as possible——or at least appear to be.
• Because they are adjusting to their new bodies and a whole host of new intellectual and emotional challenges, teenagers are especially self-conscious and need the confidence that comes from achieving success and knowing that their accomplishments are admired by others.

b. 复合连词

引导词：now(that)(既然,由于), seeing(that)(鉴于,由于,因为), considering(that)(考虑到,鉴于), given(that)(假定,考虑到,只要是), in that等。

• Seeing that it’s raining hard, we’ll have to stay here for the night.
• Seeing she is lawful enough to get married, I don’t think you can stop her.
• Given/Considering that they are inexperienced, they’ve done a good job.
• Now that we have all the materials ready, we should begin the new task at once.

3.5 结果状语从句

常用引导词：so…that(如此…以致于); such…that(同左); so that/such that(所以,因此)； 从句位于主句之后。

• And home appliances will also become so smart that controlling and operating them will result in the breakout of a new psychological disorder-kitchen rage.

  家用电器也将变得如此智能，以至于控制和操作它们将导致一种新的心理障碍的爆发——厨房狂怒。

• The company seems to have concluded that its reputation(声誉) in Vermont is already so damaged that it has nothing left to lose by going to war with the state.

• The newly described languages were often so strikingly different from the well-studied languages of Europe and Southeast Asia that some scholars even accused Boas and Sapir of fabricating their data.

  这些最近被描述的语言与已经被充分研究过的欧洲和东南亚语言往往存在显著差异，以至于一些学者甚至指责博阿斯和萨皮尔捏造了他们的数据。

3.6 目的状语从句

常用引导词：so that(以便,为了), in order that(为了)，从句中常含有may/might, shall/should, will/would, can/could等等。

• When two monkeys were placed in separate but adjoining chambers(毗邻的房间) so that each could observe what the other was getting in return for its rock, their behavior became markedly different.

so that引导从句，区分结果状从和目的状从：有无情态动词

• 结果状从没有情态动词，目的状从有情态动词。

3.7 地点状语从句

常用引导词：where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere。

• Where there is a will, there is a way. （有志者事竟成）（修饰主句）
• The credit card may cash wherever he wishes. （修饰主句）
• Everywhere/Wherever you go in America(无论你走到美国的哪里) you hear tales of corporate revival(企业复兴的故事). （修饰主句）
  • wherever=no matter where： No matter where you go in America you hear tales of corporate revival. （让步状语从句）

3.8 方式状语从句

常用引导词：as(似乎，好像，正如), like, as if(似乎，好像), as though(正如), the way等等。

• Love like you’ve never been hurt, and dance like nobody’s watching. （修饰love）

• Prepare for the NETEM like you’ve got only one chance in a lifetime. （修饰准备的行动）

• Beethoven’s music tends to move from chaos to order as if the order were an imperative of human existence. （修饰趋势）

  贝多芬的音乐倾向于从混乱走向有序，似乎秩序是人类生存的必要条件。

• Do as the Romans do when in Rome. （修饰do）

• Do it the way you like. （修饰do）

• He acted as if/as though he had known everything. （修饰act）

3.9 比较状语从句

常用引导词：as

• as+adv./adj.+as
  • Grammar is not as difficult as you think. （修饰difficult）

3.10 状从的省略

当状从与主句的主语一致且状从有be的谓语，则状从可省略主语和be动词。

• Many others, while (they are) not addicted or mentally ill, simply lack the everyday survival skills needed to turn their lives around.

  还有许多人，虽然(他们)没有上瘾或精神疾病，但只是缺乏扭转生活所需的日常生存技能。

4. 不能充当谓语动词的句子成分

3.4 特殊句型

3.4.1 倒装

1. 部分倒装

a. "Only+状语"位于句首

• Only gradually was the by-product of the institution noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution.

b. 否定意义状语位于句首

• Not until he got home did he realize that he had forgotten to attend the conference.
• By no means is it a simple task for a human,…
• At no time and under no circumstances will China be the first to use or menace to use nuclear weapons.
• Never before has television served so much to connect different peoples and nations as in the recent events in Europe.

c. so+adj.位于句首

d. nor/never位于句首

e. 比较状语部分倒装

f. 让步状从倒装

g. 虚拟条件句省略倒装

• But had Entergy kept its word, that debate would be beside the point.
• For example, they do compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.

2. 完全倒装

a. 介词短语+谓语

• At the core of this debate was chairman Gerald Levin, 56, who took over for the late Steve Ross in 1992.

b. 分词短语+谓语

• Scattered around the globe are more than 100 small regions of isolated volcanic activity known to geologists as hot spots.

  地球上散布着100多个孤立的火山活动小区域，地质学家称之为热点

c. 地点副词+谓语

d. 形容词短语+谓语

举例：待整理！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！

• Typical of the new type of youth was LeiFeng, who set a shining example to the whole nation.
• Only if the jobless arrive at the jobcentre with a CV, register for an online job search, and start looking for work will there be eligible for benefits and then they should report weekly rather than fortnightly.
• Coupled with the growing quantity of information is the development of technologies which enable the storage and delivery of more information with greater speed to more locations than has ever been possible before.
• Nonstop waves of immigrants played a role, too —— and so did bigger crops of babies as yesterday’s “baby boom” generation reached its child-bearing years.
• So involved with their computers do the children become that leader at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.
• Only after he had spoken out those words did he realize he had made a big mistake.
• So sudden was the attack that we had no time to escape.
• No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.
• On the ground lay some air conditioners, which are to be shipped to some other cities.
• Had you come yesterday, you would have seen him.

3.4.2 虚拟

3.4.3 强调

强调方式：

• 助动词：
  • do/does/did+v.
• 倒装结构
• 强调句式
  • It is…that/which/who…

举例：待整理！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！

• Perhaps it is humankind’s long suffering at the mercy of flood and drought that makes the idea fo forcing the waters to do our bidding so fascinating.
• In an odd way, however, it is the educated who have claimed to have given up on ambition as an ideal.
• It is almost due to some very special circumstances that traces of land animals survive.
• It was not until she had arrived home that she remembered her appointment with the doctor.
• Their analysis ruled out the possibility that it was the firm’s political influence, rather than their CSR stand, that accounted for the leniency: Companies that contributed more to political campaigns did not receive lower fines.
• At no time and under no circumstances will China be the first to user or menace to user nuclear weapons.
• More serious was the problem of environmental pollution.
• Never will they give up the struggle for freedom and peace.
• Electronic computers make possible the fast complicated calculation.
• It was when Hemingway lived in Cuba that he wrote The Old Man and the Sea.

3.4.5 省略结构

and并列句省略

• It is said that in England death is pressing(紧迫的), in Canada inevitable(不可避免) and in California optional(可选择的). （主句相同）
• The teachers’ unions keep an eye on schools, the CCPOA on prisons, and a variety of labor groups on health care. （谓语相同）
• Until these issues are resolved, a technology of behavior will continue to be rejected, and with it possibly the only way to solve our problems. （谓语相同）

状语从句省略

当状从与主句的主语一致且状从有be的谓语，则状从可省略主语和be动词。

• Though (the prospects are) still distant, the prospects for passing the exam become bright.
• When (the novel is) published, the novel will become one of the best sellers of the year.
• Although (he is) hard-working, he couldn’t earn enough to support himself.

3.4.6 比较结构

1. 比较标志
   • 比较级+than
   • as…as, not so…as
2. 识别比较内容
   • 结构形式相似
   • 性质相同
   • 语义相关
3. 比较结果
   • ><=
   • 全肯定
   • 全否定

as…as…, not so…as:

• The “failed” experiments are as much a part of the process as the experiment that ultimately “works”. (as much … as)

  “失败”的实验和最终“成功”的实验一样，都是这个过程的一部分。

• There are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians. (as many … as)

  历史学家对历史的定义几乎和对历史的定义一样多。

• Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius(天才) as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools.

  他们说，科学的发展与其说来自天才伟人的真知灼见，不如说是来自改进的技术和工具等更普通的东西。(not so much … as …；与其说…不如说…，不是…而是…)

• The chief reason for the population growth isn’t so much a rise in birth rates as a fall in death rates as(原因状语) a result of improvements in medical care.

比较级+than:

more…than; less…than; no more…than…; no less…than…

• The population in America is smaller than that in China.
• She is less beautiful than intelligent.
• She is no more intelligent than her sister.
• She is no less intelligent than her sister.
• The present crisis is no more an economic crisis than a political crisis.
• She is no less beautiful than intelligent.
• Science, in practice, depends far less on the experiments than on the preparedness(准备) of the minds of the men who watch the experiments.

3.4.7 分割结构

• Thus, the anthropological concept of “culture”, like the concept of “set” in mathematics, is an abstract concept which makes possible immense amounts of concrete research and understanding.

  因此，人类学中的“文化”概念，就像数学中的“集合”概念一样，是一个抽象的概念，它使大量的具体研究和理解成为可能。

• His function is analogous(类似的) to that of a judge, who must accept the obligation(义务) of revealing in as obvious a manner(方式) as possible the course(进展,过程) of reasoning(推理) which led him to his decision.

  他的作用类似于法官，必须接受以尽可能明显的方式揭示导致他做出决定的推理过程的义务。

• I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in the Socratic way about moral problems.

  我将他定义为这样一个人，他把以苏格拉底的方式思考道德问题作为自己生活的主要职责和乐趣。

分割结构是指这种？？？？？？分隔式同位语从句——特殊的同位语从句 ！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！

• He got a piece of news from Mary that Bob had gotten rid of single life. [一般同位语是贴着的，这里就分开了]

3.4.8 并列结构

1. 并列标志

   • 标点：分号

   • 并列词/词组：

     • and, or, but, so
     • not only…but(also), both…and, either…or, neither…nor, both…and, as well as

2. 并列内容形式

   • 词/词组/短语结构

   • 句子

3. 并列内容特征

   • 结构形式相似

   • 性质相同

   • 语义相关

举例：！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！待分析类别

• As you will come to see, knowing that mental health is always available and knowing to trust it allow us to slow down to the moment and live life happily.

  正如你将会看到的，知道心理健康总是可用的，并知道要相信它，让我们放慢脚步，享受当下，快乐地生活。

• However, whether such a sense of fairness evolved independently in capuchins and humans, or whether it stems from the common ancestor that the species has 35 million years ago, is, as yet, an unanswered question.

  然而，这种公平感是在卷尾猴和人类身上独立进化而来的，还是起源于3500万年前物种的共同祖先，至今仍是一个悬而未决的问题。

• Children will play with dolls equipped with personality chips, computers with in-bulit personalities will be regarded as workmates rather than tools, relaxation will be in front of smell-television, and the digital age will have arrived.

  孩子们将和装有个性芯片的玩偶玩耍，内置个性的电脑将被视为工作伙伴而不是工具，人们将在嗅觉电视前放松，数字时代将到来。

• Under modern conditions, this requires varying measures of centralized control and hence the help of specialized scientists such as economists and operational research experts.

  在现代条件下，这需要各种集中控制措施，因此需要经济学家和运筹学专家等专业科学家的帮助。

• In general, the tests work most effectively when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be measured or predicted cannot be well defined.

  一般来说，当要测量的品质能够最精确地定义时，测试最有效，而当要测量或预测的东西不能很好地定义时，测试最无效。

• This seems a justification for neglect of those in need, and a rationalization of exploitation, of the superiority of those at the top and the inferiority of those at the bottom.

  这似乎是忽视需要帮助的人的正当理由，是剥削的合理化，是上层人的优越和底层人的劣等的合理化。

3.4.9 否定结构

1. 否定标志
   • 否定词
     • not, no, none, nothing, never等等。
   • 表达否定意义的词/词组
     • little, few, seldomly, hardly, rarely, scarcely, by no means, in no way等等。
2. 否定类型
   • 全部否定
   • 部分否定
3. 特殊现象
   • 双重否定
   • 否定转移

举例：待整理！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！

• One can’t speak of Egypt, without thinking of the Pyramids.
• It is impossible to meet the challenges of the future without the payment of a fearful price.
• Don’t cry because it is over, but smile because it happened.
• They were not about to change their tastes and habits just because of a change in the law.
• You cannot praise the performance of those beautiful dancers too highly.
• The importance of environmental protection cannot be overemphasized.

4. 其他语法问题

shall/should, may/might, will/would的区别

should和shall的区别

1. 作时态助动词时使用上的不同

   should是shall的过去式。shall引导一般将来时用在第一人称（英国英语）；should用来过去将来时用在第一人称（英国英语，已经不常见）。

2. 作情态动词时使用上的不同

   • should的用法
     1. (表示语气较强的假设)万一,竟然
        • If the car should break down on the way, you would have to walk back. （万一汽车中途抛锚,你就得走回来。）
     2. (表示可能性、推测、推论或期待)可能,该
        • She should be here any minute. （她该马上就到。）
     3. (表示义务、责任)应该,应当
        • You should do as she says. （你应当照她说的去做。）
     4. (表示委婉、谦逊)可,倒
   • shall用法
     1. (用在问句中表示征求对方意见,主要用于第一、第三人称)…好吗?要不要…?
        • Shall we begin now? （我们现在开始好吗?）
     2. (用于陈述句中的第二、第三人称,表示说话人的意图、允诺、警告、命令、决心等)必须,应,可
        • You shall have it back next week. （下星期一定还你。）
     3. (用在条约、规章、法令等文件中表示义务或规定,一般用于第三人称)应,必须
        • Intruders shall be punished. （非法闯入者将遭处罚。）

3. 词性不同

   should是一个情态动词，表示“应该怎样” 。

   shall用于第一人称，表征求对方意见或向对方请示，用于第二,第三人称,表示说话人给对方的命令,警告,允诺或威胁 。

[待整理]

句子结构分析：

1. 长难句剖析：简单句的宏观扩展及围观扩展的结果。

2. 长难句拆分原则：把主句和从句拆分出来，把主干部分和修饰部分拆分出来。

3. 拆分信号：

   • 标点符号：或显或隐隔离主干——两个逗号形成插入语、破折号解释说明、分号两句并列；
   • 连词：复合句的连接词and，or，but，yet，for等等；从句的从属连词which，that，when，if等等；
   • 介词：引导介词短语，充当修饰语；
   • 不定式符号to：引导不定式做主语、宾语、表语、状语、定语和补语；
   • 分词：过去分词和现在分词充当修饰语；

   例：The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by the plant must be dissolved in the soil solution before they can be taken into the root.

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