计算机硬件的基本结构和工作原理

一个完整的计算机系统应包含硬件系统和软件系统。

硬件系统是指组成计算机的物理设备，即由电子器件、机械部件构成的具有输入、输出、处理等功能的实体部件
软件系统是指计算机系统中的程序以及开发、使用和维护程序所形成的文档

计算机的体系结构

计算机的体系结构是指构成系统主要部件的总体布局、部件的主要性能以及这些部件之间的连接方式。

评价标准：

时钟频率（主频）—— 比较同类处理机的运算能力
指令执行速度（MIPS）—— 每秒百万条指令数
MIPS=指令条数执行时间×106=FzCPI=IPC⋅FzMIPS=\frac{指令条数}{执行时间\times10^6}=\frac{Fz}{CPI}=IPC·FzMIPS=执行时间×106指令条数=CPIFz=IPC⋅Fz（Fz：处理机的工作主频；CPI：一条指令所需的平均时钟周期数；IPC：平均一个时钟周期所执行的指令条数）

计算机硬件的基本结构（冯·诺依曼体系结构）

计算机硬件是由电子的、磁性的和机械的器件组成的装置，是计算机的物理基础。
冯·诺依曼提出了计算机应具有的5个基本组成成分，各部分之间通过相应的信号线进行相互联系。

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硬件

运算器

存储器

控制器

输入设备

输出设备

并提出了“采用二进制”和“存储程序”这两个重要的基本思想。
“采用二进制”：计算机中的数据和指令均以二进制的形式存储和处理。
“存储程序”：将程序预先存入存储器中，使计算机能够自动地从存储器中读取指令并执行。

这种体系结构称为冯·诺依曼体系结构，采取该结构的计算机称为冯·诺依曼机。

冯·诺依曼体系结构的主要特点是：

计算机由运算器、控制器、存储器、输入设备和输出设备五大部分组成
数据和程序以二进制代码形式不加区别地存放在存储器中，存放的位置由地址决定
控制器是根据存放在存储器中的指令序列（即程序）进行工作，并由一个程序计数器控制指令的执行，控制器具有判断能力，能以计算结果为基础，选择不同的工作流程。即计算机能自动逐条取出指令和执行任务。

冯诺依曼结构规定，控制器是根据存放在存储器中的程序来工作的，即计算机的工作过程就是运行程序的过程。为了使计算机能正常工作，程序必须预先存放在存储器中，因而这种结构的计算机是按存储程序原理进行工作的。

计算机的五大部分中，控制器和运算器是其核心部分，称为中央处理器单元（CPU，Center Process Unit）。
主机 = CPU + 内部存储器。
外部设备 = 输入设备 + 输出设备。

运算器

运算器是对二进制数进行运算的部件。它在控制器的控制下执行程序中的指令，完成各种算术运算、逻辑运算、比较运算、移位运算以及字符运算等。
运算器由算术逻辑部件（ALU）、寄存器等组成。ALU用于完成运算，寄存器用于暂存参加运算的操作数或中间结果。
运算器的主要技术指标是运算速度，单位MIPS（百万指令每秒）。

存储器

存储器是用来存储数据和程序的部件，使用具有两种稳定状态的物理器件来存储信息，如磁芯、半导体、光盘等。
位bit是存储器最小的存储单位，若干位构成一个存储单元，其中可以存放一个二进制数据或一条指令。一个存储单元中存入的信息称为一个“字”，一个字所包含的二进制的位数称为“字长”。目前计算机的字长一般为32位或64位。计算机的字长越大，其精确度就越高。

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存储器

内存储器

随机存取存储器 RAM

只读存储器 ROM

外存储器

内存储器（内存）具有存取速度快、可直接与运算器及控制器交换信息等特点，但其容量一般不大。其中，随机存取存储器用来存放正在执行的程序及所需要的数据，具有存取速度快、集成度高、电路简单等优点，但断电后信息不能保存。只读存储器用来存放监控程序、操作系统等专用程序。
（内存储器中的内容在电源断掉以后就消失，又被称为暂时存储器。）
外存储器用来存放需要长期保存的信息，其特点是存储容量大、成本低，但它不能直接与运算器及控制器交换信息，需要时可成批地与内存交换信息，存取速度慢。

控制器

控制器是指挥计算机的各个部件按照指令的功能要求协调工作的部件，是计算机的“神经中枢”。
控制器的主要特点是：采用内存程序控制方式。即在使用计算机时必须预先编写（或由编译程序自动生成）由计算机指令组成的程序并存入内存，由控制器依次读取并执行。

控制其中的程序计数器总是存放着下一条待执行指令在存储器中的地址，由它控制程序的执行顺序。

输入/输出设备

又称“外部设备”，是外部与计算机交换信息的渠道。

当用户在键盘上按下一个近视改进所表示的字符自动转化成一系列计算机系统能识别的电子脉冲（有脉冲和无脉冲两个状态）。

有3种方法可以改进硬盘的性能：磁盘缓冲、磁盘阵列、文件压缩/解压缩
磁带提供的是顺序化存储。

计算机的工作原理

指令系统

指令是能被计算机识别并执行的二进制代码，它规定了计算机能完成的某一种操作。一台计算机所能执行的所有指令的集合称为该台计算机的指令系统。

注意：不同类型的计算机的指令系统不同。

计算机只能识别并执行机器指令，所编写的源代码只能翻译为机器指令后才能被执行。

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指令

操作码

地址码

操作码规定了该指令进行的操作种类（如加、减、存数、取数等）；地址码给出了操作数、结果以及下一条指令的地址。
在一条指令中，操作码是必须有的，地址码可以有多种形式。

指令的分类：

数据传送型
数据处理型
程序控制型
输入输出型
硬件控制型

计算机工作原理

计算机在工作时，有两种信息在流动：数据信息和指令控制信息。
数据信息包括原始数据、中间结果、结果数据、源程序等，这些信息从存储器读入运算器进行运算，结束结果再存入存储器或传送到输出设备。指令控制信息是由控制器对指令进行分析、解释后向各部件发出的控制命令，指挥各部件协调地工作。