Legal concepts

Development of UK law

• The Kingdom of England was established in 927.
• The Principality of Wales was established in 1216.
Common law
• Following 1066, a unified system of law (English common law)
slowly came into existence. It was “common” to all courts.
• Common law used earlier decisions made by judges (precedent)
as a guide to what should happen in legal disputes
普通法使用法官较早作出的决定（先例）作为法律纠纷中应该发生的事情的指南

Civil law民法

• Civil law systems rely on written statutes (legislation) and other legal codes that establish legal procedures and punishments.
民法体系依赖成文法（立法）和其他确立法律程序和惩罚的法典。 •
• Legislation is important in UK law but English law places more emphasis on precedent (it is a common law system)
立法在英国法律中很重要，但英国法律更强调先例（这是一个普通法体系）
• Civil law is concerned with resolving disputes between individuals or groups of individuals. 民法涉及解决个人或个人群体之间的纠纷。
• Civil cases are initiated by an aggrieved party (plaintiff), who takes legal proceedings against (sues) another party (defendant). 民事案件由受害方（原告）发起，对另一方（被告）提起法律诉讼（起诉）。
• Normally the objective is to obtain damages (money compensation) or an injunction (court order). 通常目的是获得损害赔偿（金钱补偿）或禁令（法院命令）。

Who makes the law谁制定法律

• Common law
Made by judges
• Primary Legislation主要立法
Parliament / Scottish Parliament / Welsh Assembly / N.I Assembly议会
Order in Council (controlled by Government, approved by Monarch) 议会令（由政府控制，君主批准）
Church of England Measures (affecting the Church in the UK only) 议会令（由政府控制，君主批准）
• Delegated Legislation (many kinds). 授权立法
Ministerial orders部长令
By-laws made by local authorities地方当局制定的细则

Judicial precedent司法先例

• Common law was created on an ad hoc basis, each problem being settled as it arose.
• How did people know what was a crime, or what their rights were in a dispute?
• The decision of a court is binding on the parties involved, but may also be binding on future cases. 法院的判决对相关各方具有约束力，但也可能对未来的案件具有约束力。
• The principle sets a precedent which is incorporated into the common law. 该原则设定了一个被纳入普通法的先例

Case law判例法

• Precedent is also called case law (the law to be discovered by reading earlier cases).
o For the last 400 years, important cases have been recorded in Law Reports, which constitute a major source of law.
• There are two kinds of precedent:
o Binding precedent (e.g., English law) – judges are required to follow earlier judgments made in higher courts in similar cases. 具有约束力的先例（例如，英国法律）——法官必须遵循上级法院在类似案件中作出的较早判决。
o Persuasive precedent (e.g., Scots law) – judges can choose to act differently if they think an earlier judgment was wrong. 有说服力的先例（例如苏格兰法律）——如果法官认为先前的判决是错误的，他们可以选择采取不同的行动。

Writs 令状

• A writ was originally an order from the King (or other judicial body) telling someone to do something, e.g. a writ of habeus corpus令状最初是国王（或其他司法机构）命令某人做某事的命令，例如人身保护令状

Equity 衡平法

• If a common law remedy produced an unfair result the Court of Chancery could decide the issue. 如果普通法补救措施产生了不公平的结果，衡平法院可以决定该问题。
• The Court appointed a chancellor, who considered the merits of each case. 法院任命了一位大法官，他考虑了每个案件的是非曲直
• The chancellor was a priest, and was only concerned with what was fair, not common law concepts.
• The justice dispensed by Chancellors became known as equity.

Parliament 议会

• In the 15th century, the legislative power of the King was transferred to Parliament.
• Courts were reorganised in the 19th century, so that all courts could apply common law and equity.
• By the end of the 19th century, legislation was becoming more important than common law or equity到 19 世纪末，立法变得比普通法或衡平法更重要

Criminal law 刑法

• Criminal law concerns the punishment of acts which can be seen
as offending against society as a whole. 刑法涉及对可被视为危害整个社会的行为的惩罚。
• Criminal cases are normally brought by the Crown, e.g., a case
against Smith will be referred to as R. v. Smith.
• If an individual is acquitted, he/she cannot be prosecuted again
for the same offence on the same evidence.
• Criminal Justice Act 2003 now allows a retrial for serious criminal
cases if new and compelling evidence comes to light

Burden of proof举证责任

• Criminal law
o Prosecution must demonstrate they are guilty beyond all reasonable
doubt控方必须排除所有合理怀疑证明他们有罪
o Defendant is assumed to be innocent until proven guilty 在被证明有罪之前假定被告是无辜的
o Prosecution has to prove its case控方必须证明其案情
• Civil law
o To win case, need to show claim is correct on the balance of probabilities要赢得官司，需要证明索赔在概率平衡上是正确的
o Both parties present evidence and must convince court of their correctness 双方都出示证据，必须让法庭相信他们的正确性

The legislative process立法过程

• A Bill (a proposed new Act) is drafted, normally under the supervision of a government minister. 通常在政府部长的监督下起草法案（拟议的新法案）
• The Bill is introduced either into the House of Commons or the House of Lords (normally it must be passed by both houses).
• Several stages of reading and amendment follow. 修改
• The Bill becomes an Act of Parliament following Royal Assent该法案在获得御准后成为议会法案。

Delegated legislation授权立法

Parliament cannot find time to attend to every detail. Power to make regulations is delegated to other bodies, such as local authorities and government ministers. Such regulations are known as delegated legislation. 议会没有时间关注每一个细节，制定法规的权力被授权给其他机构，例如地方当局和政府部长。此类法规称为授权立法。
• Delegated legislation is a statutory instrument, e.g., 法定文书
o Copyright (Computer Programs) Regulations 1992

EU legislation欧盟立法

• Regulations法规
o New laws directly enforceable by English Parliament and Courts. 英国议会和法院可直接执行的新法律o E.g., General Data Protection Regulation
• Directives法规
o An instruction to member states to alter their existing laws. A Directive requires transposition into national legislation (with minor national variations) 指示成员国修改其现行法律。指令需要转换为国家立法（国家差异较小）o E.g., Copyright (Computer Programs) Regulations 1992 is the transposition of Council Directive 91/250/EEC on the legal protection of computer programs
• Decisions决定
o Specific decisions regarding a member state, enterprise, company or individual关于成员国的具体决定、企业、公司或个人

The system of courts 法院系统

The Supreme Court 最高法院

Court of Appeal and High Court上诉法庭和高等法院
Court of Appeal hears appeals in criminal cases from the Crown Court and civil cases from the High Court.
High Court hears civil cases not dealt with by the county courts Consists of three divisions高等法院审理县法院未审理的民事案件。由三个部门组成
o King’s Bench – personal injury, negligence, libel, human rights国王法庭 – 人身伤害、疏忽、诽谤、人权
o Family – child protection, divorce, forced marriage家庭 – 儿童保护、离婚、强迫婚姻
o Chancery – business disputes, property, land, intellectual property大法官 – 商业纠纷、财产、土地、知识产权

Crown court 刑事法院

Sits with a judge and jury, who decide whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. 与法官和陪审团坐在一起，他们决定被告是否有罪
• Jurors selected at random from local residents. 陪审员从当地居民中随机挑选。
• The verdict of the jury should ideally be unanimous, but the court may accept a majority
verdict >= 10:2.
• Defendants committed from the magistrate’s court.
• Tries all serious criminal charges审判所有严重的刑事指控

County and Magistrates’ Courts县法院和地方法院

• County Courts县法院
o Created in 1846 to settle small claims locally and cheaply.
o Deal with claims below £25,000. 处理低于 25,000 英镑的索赔。
o Complex or important cases are referred to the High Court. 复杂或重要的案件移交高等法院。
• Magistrates’ Courts地方法院
o Hear minor criminal offences and civil cases. 审理轻微的刑事犯罪和民事案件。
o They also enforce payment of local taxes.
o Serious cases referred to the Crown Court严重案件移交刑事法院
There is no jury in County or Magistrates’ Courts.这两没有陪审团

Court of Justice of the European Unio欧盟法院(CJEU)

Tribunals and arbitration仲裁庭和仲裁

• Tribunals are concerned with resolving disputes in specific areas; they involve legal experts and experts from the field concerned (e.g., data protection).
• Arbitration is used in many civil cases仲裁用于许多民事案件 (particularly in the field of business), and involves the appointment of an independent arbitrator to resolve the dispute.

Rights, duties, obligations, liability权利、义务、义务、责任

A right is some liberty relating to a person that is protected by the law.
• Example: the possession of property.

Where a person exercises a right, he does so by virtue of another person owing a duty towards him.

• Seller has a right to sell property for an agreed price
• Buyer has a duty to pay the agreed price
• The buyer has an obligation to pay the seller

A person is under a liability (or is liable) when he owes a duty or an obligation to another.

Property and ownership财产和所有权

Legal property is that which is the subject of rights (land and other things that can be owned by a person)

Real property is land. 不动产是土地

Personal property (chattels) is all other kinds of physical property and also includes contract rights, company shares, patents and copyrights.

Ownership is the concept that relates a person to property over which he has exclusive control
Possession 占有

Principles of criminal law刑法原则

A criminal act does not constitute guilt unless the mind is guilty. 除非思想有罪，否则犯罪行为不构成犯罪

The criminal act is called the actus reus有罪行为 guilty act

The mental element of a crime is called the mens rea 有罪心理 guilty mind

Criminal defences刑事辩护

A defence is available if the defendant can show that there was no intent when the act took place. 如果被告能够证明行为发生时没有意图，则可以进行辩护。

• Mistake
  o The accused may be able to show that he was under a mistake such as to negate intention or recklessness.
  o Ignorance of the law is not an excuse.
• Insanity 精神错乱
  o Insanity may be proven if the accused was ‘labouring under a defect of reason, from disease of the mind’
  o The accused didn’t know the nature of what he was doing.
• Intoxication 醉酒
  o A type of legal insanity. May negate mens rea with regard to particular offences.
  o May be taken into account when pleading mistake.
• Compulsion 强迫
  o Involuntarily act due to duress by threats, necessity, obedience to higher authority, etc.

Fraud欺诈

Contract law 合同法

A contract is a legally enforceable agreement. 合同是具有法律效力的协议。

A contract is enforceable since there is legal action available in case one party should fail to comply with his promise under the agreement.

The usual remedy is money compensation, known as damages.

When a party does not comply with terms of a contract, a breach of contract is said to have occurred. 当一方不遵守合同条款时，即构成违约。

An important doctrine of English Law is privity of contract: third parties are unable to sue on a contract that does not concern them英国法的一个重要原则是合同相对性：第三方不能就与他们无关的合同提起诉讼

Law of Tort 侵权法

The word ‘tort’ is Norman French, meaning ‘wrong’.

A tort is a wrong which can be resolved by civil courts. 侵权行为是可以由民事法庭解决的错误

The purpose of the law of torts is to compensate those suffering loss or injury caused by another’s actions.

Usually an action for damages (money compensation). 通常是损害赔偿诉讼（金钱补偿）。

If damages are not available, an injunction (restraint order) may be made如果无法提供损害赔偿，则可能会发出禁令（限制令）

Negligence 疏忽

Negligence involves a duty of care, and the damage which is suffered as a result of a breach of that duty. 疏忽涉及注意义务，以及因违反该义务而遭受的损害

To succeed in a claim for negligence, the plaintiff must show that the damage or injury suffered was caused by the defendant’s breach of duty.

Establishing negligence确定疏忽

• Did the breach of duty cause the damage? (factual). 是否违反职责造成了损害？ （事实）
• Is any part of the damage too remote? (legal). 损坏的任何部分是否太遥远？ （合法的）

The test of remoteness asks whether a reasonable person, at the time of the breach of duty, would have foreseen the damage which has occurred. 遥远性测试询问一个有理性的人在违反义务时是否会预见到已经发生的损害

If the damage is reasonably foreseeable, the defendant is liable for it. 如果损害是可以合理预见的，被告应对其负责。

Intellectual Property

Intellectual property (IP) is the name given to legal rights that protect creative works, inventions and commercial goodwill (intangible assets of a business). 知识产权 (IP) 是保护创意作品、发明和商业商誉（企业的无形资产）的合法权利的名称。

Copyright 版权

Copyright is a benefit granted by statute.
First English copyright law (Statute of Anne) was introduced in 1709 and related only to literary works.
It created a registration system that protected authors against unauthorised copying of books.
Registered authors had the exclusive right to copy their book
Copyright law now extends to literary, dramatic, artistic and musical works.
Currently governed by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (CDPA). 版权、设计和专利法(CDPA)

The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

The CDPA provides copyright for the following:

• original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works,
• sound recordings, films, broadcasts, cable programmes
• the typographical arrangement of published editions
• • later additions, e.g. communications to the public

The owner of the copyrighted work is given the exclusive right:

• to copy the work
• to issue copies of the work to the public (including rental of copies of sound recordings, films and computer programs to the public)
• to perform, show or play the work in public
• to broadcast the work or include it in a cable programme service
• to make an adaptation of the work or do any of the above in relation to an adapta

Patent law专利法

Patents give the owner the exclusive right in an invention (such as a new type of computer hardware). 专利赋予所有者一项发明（例如新型计算机硬件）的专有权。

Seen as a useful form of intellectual property since the owner has a monopoly in an invention for several years.

Applications are handled by the Intellectual Property Office to acquiring a patent

The invention must be new, involve an inventive step and must be capable of industrial application****发明必须是新颖的，具有创造性，并且必须能够工业应用

Protected inventions may be a product 产品(e.g., a new kind of storage device) or a process 工艺 (e.g., a new way of manufacturing printed circuit boards).

Most things directly protected by copyright are excluded from patentability大多数直接受版权保护的东西都被排除在可专利性之外

Remedies for copyright infringement侵犯版权的补救措施

• Injunction强制令
  o a court order requiring the defendant to do something or refrain from doing something e.g. stop selling unauthorised copies of a computer program.
• Damages损害
  o copyright damages are assessed as the estimated loss resulting from the infringement.
• Additional damages加损害赔偿
  o when the copyright owner has suffered damage to reputation or feelings as well as purely financial loss.
• Criminal penalties for ‘secondary infringements’ 对“二次侵权”的刑事处罚
  o e.g., commercial dealing in pirated software.

Authorship and ownership著作权和所有权

The initial owner of copyright in a work is the author of the work, except when the work is made by an employee in the course of their employment, in which case the employer will be the owner unless otherwise agreed. 作品版权的最初所有者是作品的作者，除非作品是由雇员在工作期间制作的，在这种情况下雇主将是所有者，除非另有约定。

Because copyright can be sold, other people can subsequently become the copyright owner.

The CDPA distinguishes between two types of work produced using a computer – those generated by a human author and computer- generated works

Computer programs created by a human author are protected as form of ‘literary work’. Copyright in a literary work (including computer programs) expires 70 years after the year in which the author dies. 由人类作者创建的计算机程序作为“文学作品”的形式受到保护。文学作品（包括计算机程序）的版权在作者去世后的 70 年后到期

A computer-generated work is one which is ‘generated by a computer in circumstances such that there is no human author’. Computer output such as printed reports are protected by copyright as literary or artistic works. Copyright in computer-generated works expires 50 years after the work was created. 计算机生成的作品是“在没有人类作者的情况下由计算机生成的作品”。 打印报告等计算机输出作为文学或艺术作品受版权保护。 计算机生成作品的版权在作品创作50 年后到期。

Making an adaptation进行改编

Making an adaptation of a work includes translating it. 对作品进行改编包括翻译。

• “In relation to a computer program a ‘translation’ includes a version of the program in which it is converted into or out of a computer language or code or into a different computer language or code, otherwise than incidentally in the course of running the program.”

This provision aims to control the decompilation and disassembly of computer programs. 反编译和反汇编。

However … the Copyright (Computer Programs) Regulations 1992 permit decompilation under certain circumstances

CCPR

The Copyright (Computer Programs) Regulations 1992 were prompted by an EC directive on the legal protection of computer programs. They grant the right (sometimes) to decompile有权（有时）反编译， the right to make back-up copies制作备份副本的权利，the right to copy or adapt for purposes of error correction. 出于纠错目的复制或改编的权利。

Also, the CCPR introduce a defence of public interest, e.g. if it is in the interest of the public that a program listing should be published.

give a right to make a backup copy if it is necessary for lawful use – the term in the licence is irrelevant

计算机程序的反编译

Making an adaptation includes decompilation and infringes copyright unless allowed by the new decompilation right
• 改编包括反编译并侵犯版权，除非新的反编译权允许。
• 根据新的权利，程序的合法用户可以在必要时反编译程序以获得实现独立创建的程序与反编译程序的互操作性所需的信息。
• 但如果开发者打算使用反编译获得的信息开发竞品，则反编译权不适用。

The CCPR states that copyright is not infringed by a lawful user making a copy of a program for backup purposes if doing so is necessary to lawful use
CCPR 允许合法用户改编程序
一种解决方案——让程序员成为计算机生成作品的共同作者，但通过许可证确保用户是所有者。
版权保护的是表达，而不是想法
外观 • 程序的文字副本涉及未经许可复制其中的大部分内容 o 版权保护的是表达，而不是想法。然而，英国法普遍认为表达可以超越字面形式。

The Law of Confidence保密法

This is concerned with the protection of trade secrets, secrets of a personal nature and secrets concerning the government of the country.

It can prevent a person divulging information given on an explicit or implicit understanding that it should not be disclosed to others.

The law of confidence is common law, derived from case law.

The Law of Confidence protects ideas; copyright law and patents only protect the expression of ideas. 保密法保护思想。版权法和专利只保护思想的表达

Taking action

An action for breach of confidence requires three elements:

1. The information must have the necessary quality of confidence about it. 信息必须具有必要的可信度。
2. The information must have been imparted in circumstances importing a quality of confidence; an obligation of confidence was imposed. 该信息必须是在具有可信度的情况下提供的；施加了保密义务。
3. There must be an unauthorised use of that information to the detriment of the party communicating it. 必须存在对该信息的未经授权的使用，从而损害了传达该信息的一方

Quality of confidence

Four elements are necessary in testing for quality of confidence:

1. Release of the information would injure the owner of the information or benefit others. 发布信息会损害信息所有者或使他人受益
2. The owner must believe the information to be secret and not already in the public domain. 所有者必须相信该信息是机密的并且尚未公开
3. The owner’s belief in 1 and 2 must be reasonable. 所有者对1和2的信念必须是合理的。
4. The information must be judged in the light of usages and practices of the particular trade or industry concerned. 信息必须根据有关特定行业或行业的惯例和做法来判断。

How obligation of confidence arises保密义务如何产生

获得信息但不知道其机密性质的人将能够自由使用它。 保密法的一个主要弱点；它对无辜的第三方信息接收者无效

• Explicit agreement,
  e.g. a programmer may be employed under a contract that forbids them to disclose details of the client’s business to anyone else
• Duty of good faith,
  e.g. the relationship between a client and their bank manager or solicitor
• Circumstances
• in which disclosure was made, if a reasonable person would realise that information was given in confidence

Summary of employees’ rights雇员权利概要

An ex-employee can use their memory of the work carried out in previous employment: 前雇员可以使用他们对以前工作中所做工作的记忆

• unless it involves genuine secrets
• or is covered by an explicit term in her/his contract of employment.

Programmers can make use of skills they have learned: 程序员可以利用他们学到的技能

• unless there is something special about them
• or they have agreed in a contract not to make further use of them.

A restrictive contract which tries to prevent an ex-employee from making use of mundane skills is likely to be considered a restraint of trade.

In summary, contracts may protect the legitimate interests of the employer, but should not stifle fair competition合同可以保护雇主的合法利益，但不应扼杀公平竞争

Remedies for breach of confidence泄密的补救措施

The most important remedy is an injunction preventing the use or disclosure of the information. 最重要的补救措施是禁止使用或披露信息的禁令
But:

• If the information has already been divulged to sufficient people so that it is no longer confidential an injunction would be useless.

In this case, damages will be available against the person responsible if the use or disclosure of the information is to the detriment of the ‘owner’. 如果信息的使用或披露损害了“所有者”的利益，责任人将获得损害赔偿。

总结

• Intellectual property (IP) concerns legal rights that protect creative works, inventions and intangible assets of a business.
• Various areas of law protect IP, including copyright, the law of confidence, patents, design rights, trade marks.
• The CDPA gives the owner rights to copy, adapt, perform, broadcast a creative work.
• Computer software is protected under the CDPA as a literary work.
• Unusually the CDPA allows for the notion of a computer-generated work.
• The CDPA applies to computer programs and restricts acts such as copying and adaptation
• Applies to a whole or substantial part (test of quality, not quantity)
• Decompilation, making backups and error correction permitted under some circumstances by CCPR
• Aspects of the CDPA are controversial and raise potential legal issues, e.g. in relation to ownership of intermediate works
• Infringement on grounds of ‘look and feel’ is possible, but case law is inconsistent
• Important for you to understand intellectual property ownership issues going forward, both as a potential employer and employee
• Particular copyright issues in case law around electronic publishing
• In the UK, there is no patent protection for software ‘as such’
• Law of confidence (which protects ideas), and is a useful adjunct to copyright law (which protects expression) in respect of computer software

• 法律保护知识产权的各个领域，包括版权、保密法、专利、设计权、商标。
• CDPA 赋予所有者复制、改编、表演、广播创意作品的权利。
• 计算机软件作为文学作品受CDPA 保护。
• 不同寻常的是，CDPA 允许计算机生成作品的概念。
• CDPA 适用于计算机程序并限制复制和改编等行为
• 适用于整体或重要部分（质量测试，而非数量测试）
• CCPR在某些情况下允许反编译、备份和纠错
• CDPA 的某些方面存在争议并引发潜在的法律问题，例如关于中间作品的所有权
• 基于“外观和感觉”的侵权行为是可能的，但判例法不一致
• 作为潜在雇主和雇员，了解未来的知识产权所有权问题很重要
• 电子出版判例法中的特殊版权问题
• 在英国，软件“本身”没有专利保护
• 保密法（保护思想），是计算机软件版权法（保护表达）的有用补充

Contract law

Contracts

A contract is an agreement between two or more persons (the parties to the contract) that can be enforced in a court of law. 合同是两个或更多人（合同双方）之间的协议，可以在法庭上强制执行
Contract law is largely based on common law.

Essential components 三个基本要素

• All parties must intend to make a contract各方必须打算订立合同
• All parties must be competent to make a contract (e.g. old enough, and of sound mind) 各方必须有能力订立合同（例如，年龄足够大，头脑健全）
• There must be an exchange of consideration, i.e. each party must be receiving something and providing something必须交换对价，即每一方必须收到一些东西提供某物

Software contracts

When a contract is entered into for the licensing or custom development of software:

• Both parties should know precisely what is expected in terms of performance and the standards required.
• A comprehensive specification must be drawn up.
• The contract should provide a fair means of identifying responsibilities and resolving disputes. 合同应提供一种公平的方式来确定责任和解决争端。

Liability for any injury to persons or property as a result of errors in the software should be considered 应考虑因软件错误造成的任何人身伤害或财产损失的责任

Licence agreements许可协议

A software contract is a contract for the supply of software (either bespoke or off-the-shelf).

Many such contracts are not sale contracts: they are licence agreements that allow a customer to use software in return for a licence fee.许多此类合同不是销售合同：它们是允许客户使用软件以换取许可费的许可协议。

The licence may be for a fixed period of time. 许可证的有效期可能是固定的。

Consumer Rights Act (2015)

It replaces the previous Supply of Goods and Services Act (1982).

Consumer Rights Act: Goods

• Fit for purpose. 适合目的
Goods must be fit for the purpose they are supplied for, and any specific purpose you make known to the retailer before you agree to buy the goods.
• As described.
Goods must match the description given to you at time of purchase (also must match models/samples shown to you).
• Satisfactory quality. 令人满意的质量
Goods must not be faulty of damaged when you receive them. A test of reasonableness applies.
• Otherwise: request repair or replacement, or else full refund

Consumer Rights Act: Services

• Quality of service. The service must be carried out with reasonable care and skill.
• Price. If the price is not agreed beforehand, the service must be provided for a reasonable price.
• Completion time. If a timescale for performing the service is not agreed beforehand, the service must be carried out in a reasonable time.
• Otherwise: you can request that the whole or part of the service is repeated, or claim up to 100% of the cost as refund

Consumer Contracts Regulations (2013)

give a right to cancel an order
根据 CCR (2013)，数字下载被赋予了自己独特的类别，因此不是服务或商品

Breach of contract 违约

If a party to a contract breaches its terms, the remedy depends on the type of terms that have been broken.

There are two types of terms in contracts; warranties and conditions. 保证和条件

• A breach of warranty allows the aggrieved party to claim only damages — the contract remains in force and must be completed by both parties违反保证允许受害方仅要求损害赔偿——合同仍然有效并且必须由双方完成
• A breach of condition gives the aggrieved party the right to cancel the contract and claim damages. 违反条件使受害方有权取消合同并要求损害赔偿。

Exemption clauses 免责条款

An exemption clause excludes or restricts the liability of a party who is in breach of contract. There are two types:

• Exclusion clauses – give total exemption, e.g. a supplier may exclude their liability for late delivery if this is caused by circumstances beyond their control. 排除条款——给予完全豁免，例如如果这是由供应商无法控制的情况造成的，供应商可以免除其对延迟交货的责任。
• Limitation clauses – limits liability to a specified amount, e.g. software supplier may limit their liability for faulty software to the licence fee they have been paid限制条款——将责任限制在指定的数额内，例如软件供应商可以将他们对有缺陷的软件的责任限制在他们已支付的许可费内

Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977

The UCTA limits the extent to which liability can be excluded or limited for breach of contract or negligence. UCTA 限制了因违约或疏忽而可以免除或限制责任的范围。

Business liability for death and personal injury caused by negligence cannot be excluded or limited in any way. 不能以任何方式排除或限制因疏忽造成的死亡和人身伤害的商业责任

• e.g. company supplies software to control a light railway link, and a defect leads to an accident in which people are killed/injured.
• Cannot enforce clause in contract that claims to restrict liability if claims are made for deaths and injuries

Licence agreement许可协议

Usually, the client will licence the software rather than have ownership. 客户将获得软件许可而不是拥有所有权
• A contract for writing software is therefore — in most cases — a licence agreement.

If it is especially important for the client that the software it requires is not sold elsewhere, it should insist on an exclusive licence or an assignment of copyright. 独家许可或版权转让

合同通常采用许可协议的形式，因此付款通常称为许可费。licence fee

Shrink-wrap licensing (or rip-seal license) 收缩包装许可

With off-the-shelf software, there is no opportunity for a signed licence agreement. 对于现成的软件，没有机会签署许可协议。

The response of the software industry to this problem is the shrink-wrap licence or rip-seal license. 软件行业对这个问题的反应是收缩包装许可或撕封许可
• The contract is displayed on the packaging, visible through a clear plastic film. The terms are deemed accepted if the package is opened. 合同显示在包装上，透过透明塑料薄膜可见。打开包裹即视为接受条款。

Shrink-wrap licence purports to be a direct contract between the software producer and the consumer, quite separate from the contract of sale between the dealer and customer.

Web-wrap/click-wrap licences

Copyrighted works (e.g. apps) are now acquired online.
• The purchaser can be presented with the terms of license before purchasing.
• The copyright work is only made available to purchase if the ‘agree’ button is clicked.
• Clicking the ‘agree’ button incorporates the terms of the license into the contract to purchase. 版权作品只有在点击“同意”按钮后才能购买。

Web-wrap licenses cannot normally be used to assign intellectual property rights or exclusive licenses: 网络包装许可通常不能用于转让知识产权或独占许可：
• Unless a legally-recognised digital signature is used, because a written and signed document is required.

The author will be paid a royalty by the publisher, which may be a fixed sum for every unit sold or a percentage of the price charged for the software. 出版商将向作者支付版税，这可能是每售出一个单位的固定金额，也可能是软件价格的一定百分比。

Supply of the software is not separate from the supply of the media
软件的供应与媒体的供应并不分开
Contract was entered into on opening the package, not when the sale is made.
合同是在打开包装时签订的，而不是在销售时签订的。

总结

• Software is unique in the way it is traded, and this has many implications for software contracts.
• Recent legislation treats digital downloads as a new kind of tradeable thing (not a service or goods).
• Breach of contract may involve a warranty or condition.
• Exclusion of liability for breach is limited by the UCTA (1977).
• Contracts for bespoke software are complex and must be drafted with care – standard contracts can help.
• New kind of contracts have evolved to accommodate the unique nature of software (shrink-wrap, web-click).
• Software is sometimes written independently and marketed via a publishing house; the publisher usually pays a royalty fee to the author.

• 软件在交易方式上是独一无二的，这对软件合同有很多影响。
• 最近的立法将数字下载视为一种新型的可交易物品（不是服务或商品）。
• 违约可能涉及保证或条件。
• 违约责任的排除受 UCTA (1977) 的限制。
• 定制软件的合同很复杂，必须谨慎起草——标准合同可以提供帮助。
• 新型合同已经发展以适应软件的独特性质（收缩包装、网络点击）。
• 软件有时是独立编写并通过出版社销售的；出版商通常向作者支付版税。

liabilty

Accountability 问责制

• The person (or collective group) who is the appropriate agent
• to respond
• to give a report
• to go to jail or pay compensation
• to bear guilt and remorse

Responsibility 责任

• Role responsibility角色责任
What is socially expected
• Causal responsibility因果责任
e.g. John failed to stop at a stop sign and caused a car accident
• Blameworthy应受谴责
Worker who didn’t display a “slippery road” sign

A team leader may be accountable even if another team member was responsible

Liability for computer aided mistakes

If a person suffers loss as a result of a defect in a computer product (hardware or software), these areas of law may apply:
• Contract law合同法
• Law of negligence过失法
• Negligent misstatement 过失失实陈述
• Product liability (Consumer Protection Act 1987) 产品责任（1987 年消费者保护法）

Product liability imposes a liability on the producer of a defective product, but only applies to hardware, not software. 产品责任对缺陷产品的生产者施加责任，但仅适用于硬件，不适用于软件。

Negligence 疏忽

Negligence imposes liability on a person who has acted carelessly. To be able to sue in negligence, three essential ingredients must be present:

1. A duty of care owed to the injured party对受害方负有注意义务
2. A breach of that duty of care违反该注意义务
3. Consequential loss, i.e. loss which is a direct result of the breach of duty of care. 间接损失，即因违反而直接造成的损失的注意义务

The consequential loss may be to persons or to property. 随之而来的损失可能是人身或财产

• Errors in software may cause loss indirectly. 软件错误可能会间接造成损失
• Errors in hardware may cause loss directly (e.g. electric shock) 硬件错误可能直接造成损失

Implications
The fact that an action in negligence does not depend on a contract has important repercussions: 过失诉讼不依赖于合同这一事实具有重要影响

• If a program is licensed by a publisher, the program author may be liable in negligence even though s/he is not a party to the licence agreement. 程序由出版商许可，程序作者可能要承担过失责任，即使他/她不是许可协议的一方。
• A person suffering loss through the negligence of a hardware manufacturer will have a claim in negligence against the manufacturer even though the contract of sale exists with a dealer因硬件制造商的疏忽而遭受损失的人将有权向制造商提出疏忽索赔，即使销售合同与经销商存在

limitations
• A duty of care must be owed to the injured party. 必须对受害方承担注意义务。
• The claimant must show that the defendant was negligent. 原告必须证明被告疏忽大意。
• Contributory negligence – damages may be reduced if the claimant has contributed to the negligence共同过失——如果索赔人对过失负有责任，损害赔偿可能会减少

Negligent misstatement 疏忽误报

Liability for negligence is significant with regard to software that provides advice对于提供建议的软件，过失责任很重要

Tortious liability for negligent advice is called negligent misstatement. 疏忽建议的侵权责任称为疏忽错误陈述。

If advice given by decision support system is incorrect, developers of the system may be liable in negligent misstatement to the recipient

如果决策支持系统给出的建议不正确，系统的开发者可能会因疏忽误报接受者而承担责任

但是，有两个因素可能会否定或减少责任：

• 系统的开发人员几乎无法控制系统的使用或解释方式。
• 可以通过包含排除对建议的法律责任的免责声明来避免责任。(但是unfair contract terms act 1977可以制裁

Vicarious liability

This refers to secondary liability
• Employers might be liable for employees’ actions 雇主可能对雇员的行为负责
• Parents might be liable for children’s actions
• Owners might be liable for animals’ actions
But ai system are not in themselves “responsible” or capable of paying damages

Consumer Protection Act 1987

Product liability imposes a liability on the producer of a defective product, and is covered by the Consumer Protection Act 1987 (CPA).

The CPA protects consumers from faulty or defective products which cause damage to persons or property.

Manufacturers and suppliers are obliged to ensure that goods conform to the contract description, are fit for the intended purpose and are of reasonable quality.

Software does not meet the definition of product used in the Act. But it does apply to a defective product that incorporates software. 软件不符合法案中使用的产品定义。但它确实适用于包含软件的有缺陷的产品

The CPA does apply to computer hardware

The CPA allows a state-of-the-art defence. CPA 允许最先进的防御：
Manufacturers can claim that they cannot be held liable for designs or products that reflect ‘state of the art’
制造商可以声称他们不对反映“最先进”的设计或产品承担责任，那时候科学和技术知识状况不足以预期产品的生产商会发现缺陷
示例：
o 如果证明使用计算机显示器与疾病之间存在所谓的联系，则新显示器的制造商可能会根据 CPA 承担责任。
o 旧产品的制造商可能拥有最先进的防御措施

Health and Safety Act 1974

Concerns responsibility for health and safety precautions in the workplace – most responsibility falls on employers. 涉及工作场所健康与安全预防措施的责任——大部分责任落在雇主身上

Infringement of this Act is a criminal offence. 是刑事犯罪

Act also places a duty on designers and manufacturers to ensure equipment is safe.

Implications for safety-critical software:
• If person is injured as the result of an error in software of a computer controlled machine, software developers could be liable for prosecution if they cannot demonstrate sufficient care in its design and development.如果人员因计算机控制机器的软件错误而受伤，如果软件开发商未能在其设计和开发中表现出足够的谨慎，则可能会被起诉

总结

The reliability of computer systems is largely determined by software.
A remedy for computer aided mistakes can be provided by
• contract law
• the law of negligence
• negligent misstatement
• product liability.
Product liability imposes a liability on the producer of a defective product, but only applies to hardware, not software.
Software contracts are covered by the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977.

计算机系统的可靠性在很大程度上是由软件决定的。
可以通过以下方式提供针对计算机辅助错误的补救措施
• 合同法
• 过失法
• 疏忽误报
• 产品责任。
产品责任对缺陷产品的生产者施加责任，但仅适用于硬件，不适用于软件。
软件合同受 1977 年《不公平合同条款法》的约束。

Computer misuse and computer crime

Prompted the Computer Misuse Act 1990 (CMA)
Most criminal offences are set out in Acts of Parliament: e.g. Theft Act 1968, Fraud Act 2006, Computer Misuse Act 1990.

Theft Act 1968

Unauthorised access will result in some consumption of electricity

This could be regarded as theft

But will have to demonstrate that the person realised they were being dishonest

Types of computer misuse (Scottish Law Commission, 1987)

1. Erasure or falsification of data or programs to gain a financial or other advantage擦除或伪造数据或程序以获得财务或其他利益
   • This category deals with fraud or theft涉及欺诈或盗窃
2. Obtaining unauthorised access to a computer未经授权访问计算机
   • Hacking and unauthorised use of an employer’s computer by an employee.
   • Hackers who damage computer systems often have no intention of doing so. Without mens rea, there is no crime.
3. Eavesdropping on a computer在电脑上窃听
   • This involves the use of equipment to pick up radiation emissions from a computer screen.
4. Taking information without physical removal在没有物理移除的情况下获取信息
   • Legal problems arise here since ‘information’ is not a physical thing; it cannot be stolen.
   • Dealing with this problem would require changes to the law of theft; a major undertaking.
   • Copyright, patents and law of confidence offer some protection
5. Unauthorised borrowing of computer material未经授权借用计算机资料
   • Borrowing of computer media does not constitute theft.
6. Denial of access to authorised users拒绝授权用户访问
   • A user of a computer system could prejudice other users by denying them access to the computer or data, e.g., DDOS attacks, ransomware.
7. Unauthorised use of computer time/facilities未经授权使用计算机时间/设施
   • Authorised users of a computer could use them for unauthorised uses, such as private research and development which is competitive with their employer.
8. Malicious or reckless corruption or erasure of data or programs恶意或鲁莽地破坏或删除数据或程序
   • Could cause financial loss, damage to the environment or loss of life.

Types of computer fraud (Audit Commission)

Computer systems are often vulnerable to fraud

• Entry of an unauthorised instruction (input fraud) 输入未经授权的指令
  Unauthorised alteration of data prior to it being input into a computer.
  Probably common.
• Alteration of input data (data fraud) 更改输入数据
  Data held on a computer system is modified for fraudulent means.
• Suppression of data (output fraud) 数据抑制
  Output from a computer system is destroyed or altered. The motive is usually to conceal criminal activity.
• Program fraud程序欺诈
  Alteration of a computer program. Sophisticated, and therefore hard to detect o Example: salami fraud

Fraud Act 2006

A person is guilty of fraud if in breach of any of the following:
• Fraud by false representation虚假陈述欺诈
• Fraud by abuse of position滥用职权欺诈
• Fraud by failing to disclose information (e.g taxation, less relevant here) 未能披露信息（例如税收，此处不太相关）的欺诈行为

Penalties
• Summary conviction (Magistrates court): imprisonment for up to 12 months and/or fine
• Conviction on indictment (Crown court trial by jury): imprisonment for up to 10 years and/or fine

Fraud by false representation通过虚假陈述进行欺诈

Fraud Act 2006, Section 2

Phishing - obtaining information such as bank account details by sending email (or SMS) purporting to be from that person’s bank通过发送声称来自该人银行的电子邮件（或短信）获取银行帐户详细信息等信息

Pharming - redirecting traffic from genuine website to bogus one 将流量从真实网站重定向到虚假网站

Fraud by abuse of position滥用职权进行欺诈

Fraud Act 2006, Section 4

• Section 6 of Fraud Act 2006: offence for a person to have in his possession any article for use in connection with a fraud. 2006 年《欺诈法》第 6 条：个人拥有任何用于欺诈的物品的罪行，即决定罪：最高 12 个月监禁和/或罚款，一经定罪：最高可判处 5 年监禁

• Section 7 of Fraud Act 2006: offence if a person makes, adapts, supplies, or offers to supply any article intending it to be used to commit fraud 2006 年《欺诈法》第 7 条：如果某人制造、改装、供应或提议供应任何旨在用于实施欺诈的物品，即构成犯罪，即决定罪：最高 12 个月监禁和/或罚款，一经定罪：最高可判 10 年监禁

不诚实行为

Fraud Act 2006 Section 11
offence committed by person who obtains services for himself or another by dishonest act where: 通过不诚实行为为自己或他人获得服务的人犯下的罪行，简易程序定罪的最高刑罚是不超过 12 个月的监禁和/或罚款，起诉书定罪的最高刑罚是不超过 5 年的监禁和/或罚款。

the services are made available on the basis that payment has/will be made for them

he obtains them without any payment having been made for them, or without payment being made in full, and this is done with intent

Legislation applicable to software piracy

• Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a number of criminal offences;版权设计专利
  The most serious are for distributing and importing.
• Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981 伪造
  A disc, tape or other recording medium may be a ‘false instrument’.
• Trade Descriptions Act 1968 商品说明
• Intended to protect consumers from buying inferior goods, e.g. copied software which is being sold as the genuine article

Legislation applicable to viruses and hacking

• Computer Misuse Act 1990滥用
  Introduced new offences aimed at viruses and hacking.
• Investigatory Powers Act 2016调查权利
  Under section 3(1) it is an offence to intentionally intercept a communication (in the UK) in the course of its transmission by means of a public or private telecommunication system.
• Data Protection Act 2018数据保护
  Offences may be committed alongside cyber-dependant crimes. These include knowingly or recklessly obtaining or disclosing personal data, and selling personal data disclosed without consent

The Computer Misuse Act 1990

1. Unauthorised access to computer material, punishable by 12 months imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine; 未经授权访问计算机资料，可处以 12 个月监禁和/或无限期罚款
2. Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences, punishable by 12 months/maximum fine on summary conviction and/or 5 years/fine on indictment; 未经授权的访问，意图实施或协助实施进一步的犯罪，可处以 12 个月/最高罚款的简易定罪和/或 5 年/起诉的罚款
3. Unauthorised modification of computer material, punishable by 12 months/maximum fine on summary conviction and/or 10 years/fine on indictment; 未经授权修改计算机材料，经简易程序定罪可处以 12 个月/最高罚款和/或 10 年/起诉罚款

Prevention is better than cure

总结

• Computer crime is a serious and growing problem.
• In the UK, there is a much higher incidence of computer crime than is reported to the police.
• Computer misuse can take many different forms.
• Fraud is commonly linked to computer crime.
• The Fraud Act 2006 has fixed some issues with previous fraud legislation in terms of their application to computer crime.
• Prior to the introduction of the Computer Misuse Act 1990, the ability of criminal law to deal with computer crime was limited.
• The Computer Misuse Act was introduced in 1990. It introduces three new offences:
o Unauthorised access to computer material
o Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate further offences
o Unauthorised modification of computer material
• Application of the CMA has met with mixed success.
• A secure system is a better protection against crime than legislation

• 计算机犯罪是一个严重且日益严重的问题。
• 在英国，计算机犯罪的发生率比向警方报告的要高得多。
• 滥用计算机可以有多种不同的形式。
• 欺诈通常与计算机犯罪有关。
• 2006 年欺诈法案解决了以前欺诈立法在计算机犯罪中的一些问题。
• 在 1990 年《计算机滥用法》出台之前，刑法处理计算机犯罪的能力是有限的。
• 《滥用计算机法》于 1990 年出台。它引入了三项新的罪行：
o 未经授权访问计算机资料
o 意图实施或协助进一步犯罪的未经授权的访问
o 未经授权修改计算机资料
• CMA 的应用取得了不同程度的成功。
• 安全系统比立法更能防止犯罪

Data protection, privacy and freedom of information

Privacy隐私
Dataveillance 数据监控

Surveillance and the state

Surveillance can facilitate totalitarianism 监视可以助长极权主义
• total political power, where the state recognises no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life.

In “1984”:

• homes are equipped with cameras so there is no privacy
• constant propaganda about how wonderful the government is
• economic privations are justified by references to a mythical war with a distant enemy, and also with internal enemies opposed to the state
• language changes - newspeak is a form of reduced vocabulary, e.g. bad = ‘ungood’, bliss = ‘doubleplusgood’
• rewriting history (fake news)
• thought police (PC* vs non-PC) 思想警察 政治正确
*PC – Political correctness

Information in your possession

• Consider information in your possession, in the sense of its protection from observation, and perhaps tampering, by others. 考虑您所拥有的信息，即防止他人观察甚至篡改的信息。
• Data that is stored and transmitted by computer systems is potentially very vulnerable, compared to papers that are locked in a filing cabinet. 与锁在文件柜中的文件相比，计算机系统存储和传输的数据可能非常脆弱。
• Tampering with surface mail is a criminal offence in most countries, but what is the legal status of electronic mail messages? 篡改平邮在大多数国家属于刑事犯罪，但电子邮件信息的法律地位如何？
• The pace of technology is so rapid that it often renders existing privacy laws obsolete. 技术发展如此之快，以至于它常常使现有的隐私法变得过时

Information in the possession of others

The concern with this aspect of privacy is the potential for misuse of information. 对隐私这一方面的关注是信息滥用的可能性

The subject of the data may have no idea what information is stored about them, or who is using it. 数据主体可能不知道存储了哪些关于他们的信息，或者谁在使用这些信息。

A person or company may be prejudiced by incorrect information, without even being aware that the data has been accessed. 个人或公司可能会因不正确的信息而受到损害，甚至不知道数据已被访问。

In England, these issues were addressed by the Data Protection Act 1998.

Before Brexit, they were addressed by the EU GDPR/DPA 2018

Post Brexit (effective 01 January 2021), they are addressed by:

• UK General Data Protection Regulation (UK GDPR)
• Data Protection Act 2018 (DPA 2018)

Transborder data flows跨境数据流

A transborder data flow (TDF) arises when a computer in one country is accessed by, or transmits data to, a computer in another country. 当一个国家的计算机被另一个国家的计算机访问或向另一个国家的计算机传输数据时，就会出现跨境数据流 (TDF)

Local legislation that prohibits access to information may be circumvented

deally, TDFs should be strongly regulated.

However, the economies of many countries are supported by the trading of information.然而，许多国家的经济是由信息交易支撑的

Data protection in the UK

Personal data:

• means any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person (‘data subject’); 指与已识别或可识别自然人（“数据主体”）相关的任何信息；
• an identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier or to one or more factors specific to the physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity of that natural person.

Processing covers almost anything you do with data; including collecting, recording, storing, using, analysing, combining, disclosing or deleting it.

A controller determines the purposes and means of processing personal data:
控制者决定处理个人数据的目的和方式

• A controller is the person that decides how and why to collect and use the data.
• A controller is usually an organisation, but can be an individual. 控制者通常是一个组织，但也可以是个人。
• E.g. If you are an employee acting on behalf of your employer, the employer would be the
  controller.
• The controller must make sure that the processing of that data complies with data protection law. 控制者必须确保该数据的处理符合数据保护法。

A processor is responsible for processing personal data on behalf of a controller:
处理者负责代表控制者处理个人数据

• A processor is a separate person or organisation (not an employee) and acts according to the instructions provided by the controller.
• The nature of the processing covers both:
• Processing wholly or partly by automated means
• Processing in a non-automated manner (filling manually info into a system).

Processors have some direct legal obligations, but are more limited than the controller’s obligations. 处理者有一些直接的法律义务，但比控制者的义务更有限。

UK Data Protection Act (2018)

Sets out the framework for data protection law in the UK

Amended on 1 st January 2021 to reflect the UK’s status outside the EU

Three data protection regimes: 三种数据保护制度

• General processing regime (the UK GDPR) [Part 2 of DPA 2018] 一般处理制度（英国 GDPR）
• Regime for law enforcement authorities [Part 3 of DPA 2018] 执法机构的制度
• Regime for intelligence services (e.g. national security and defence) [Part 4 of DPA 2018] 情报服务的制度（例如国家安全和国防）

Sets out the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) functions and powers

Updates the previous DPA (1998) to adapt to our data-centric era

UK GDPR

UK GDPR stands for “UK General Data Protection Regulation” and came into effect as a law after the Brexit transition period (from 1st January 2021):

• It sets out the key principles, rights and obligations for most processing of personal data in the UK, except for law enforcement and intelligence agencies. 它规定了大多数个人数据处理的主要原则、权利和义务在英国，执法和情报机构除外。
• The UK GDPR is based on the EU GDPR
• The key principles, rights and obligations remain the same主要原则、权利和义务保持不变
• The UK has now the independence to keep the framework under review
• The UK has become a third country to the EU
• The rules on transfers of personal data and cross-border processing between the UK and the European Economic Area (EEA) are affected规则英国和欧洲经济区 (EEA) 之间的个人数据传输和跨境处理受到影响

UK GDPR and EU GDPR

• The rules on transfers of personal data and cross-border processing between the UK and the European Economic Area (EEA) are affected. 英国和欧洲经济区 (EEA) 之间个人数据传输和跨境处理的规则受到影响
• If operating in Europe, offering goods or services to individuals in Europe, or monitoring the behaviour of individuals in Europe, you may need to comply with both the UK GDPR and the EU GDPR.
• UK GDPR applies to controllers and processors based outside the UK if their activities relate to offering goods or services to individuals in the UK, or monitoring the behaviour of individuals taking place in the UK英国 GDPR 适用于英国境外的控制者和处理者，如果他们的活动涉及向英国境内的个人提供商品或服务，或监控发生在英国的个人行为
• EU GDPR applies to the processing of UK controllers with an establishment in the EEA, with customers in the EEA, or monitoring individuals in the EEA. EU GDPR 适用于英国控制者的处理在欧洲经济区建立机构，与欧洲经济区的客户合作，或监控欧洲经济区的个人。
• How UK controllers interact with EU data protection authorities has changed to Adequacy decisions

The UK GDPR sets out seven key principles七项关键原则:

1. Lawfulness, fairness and transparency合法性、公平性和透明度
   个人数据应以与数据主体相关的合法、公平和透明的方式处理。从一开始就清楚、公开和诚实地告诉人们您将如何使用他们的个人数据。
2. Purpose limitation目的限制
   应出于特定、明确和合法的目的收集个人数据，不得以与这些目的不相符的方式进一步处理；出于公共利益、科学研究或历史研究目的或统计目的而进行的进一步处理不应被视为与初始目的不相符（“目的限制”）
3. Data minimisation数据最小化
   个人数据应充分、相关并限于与其处理目的相关的必要内容
4. Accuracy 准确性
   个人数据应： 准确并在必要时保持最新；必须采取一切合理措施，确保不准确的个人数据（考虑到处理目的）立即被删除或更正
5. Storage limitation存储限制
   个人数据应以允许识别数据主体身份的形式保存，保存时间不得超过处理个人数据的目的所需的时间；申请道德批准时，您需要说明数据将保存在何处、保存多长时间以及何时销毁
6. **Integrity and confidentiality (security)**完整性和保密性
   个人数据的处理方式应确保个人数据的适当安全，包括使用适当的技术或组织措施防止未经授权或非法处理以及意外丢失、破坏或损坏
   Also known as the security principle
   安全是避免欺诈的关键（例如身份盗窃），建立“适当”的安全级别取决于您的处理所带来的风险，以及处理的性质、范围、背景和目的，以及实施的技术水平和成本。
7. Accountability问责制
   问责制原则要求您对您对个人数据的处理方式以及您如何遵守其他原则负责

UK GDPR rights for individuals

You have the right to:

1. Be informed if your personal data is being used.
   An organisation must inform you if it is using your personal data.
2. Get copies of your data.
   You have the right to find out if an organisation is using or storing your personal data.
3. Get your data corrected.
   You can challenge the accuracy of personal data held about you by an organisation.
4. Get your data deleted.
   You can ask an organisation to delete personal data that it holds about you.
5. Limit how organisations use your data.
   You can limit the way an organisation uses your personal data
6. Data portability.
   You have the right to get your personal data from an organisation in a way that is accessible.
7. Object to the use of your data. You have the right to object to the processing or use of your personal data in some circumstances.
8. Access information from a public body. Make a request for information from a public body.
9. Raise a concern.
   Tell an organisation if you are concerned about how they are using or handling your data.
10. You can request that decisions are not solely based on automated processing if the decision affects your legal rights or equally important matters, to understand the reasons behind those decisions and the possible consequences, and to object to profiling in certain situations, including direct marketing

Exemptions 豁免

• The UK GDPR and DPA 2018 set out exceptions from some of the rights and obligations in some circumstances
• Whether or not applicable, it depends on why the personal data is processed
• It is not recommended to routinely rely on exemptions, and they need to be considered on a case-by-case basis 不建议常规依赖豁免，它们需要逐案考虑
• Reasons for an exemption need to be documented需要记录豁免的原因
• Exemptions in the DPA 2018 can relieve you of obligations for: the right to be informed, the right of access, dealing with other individual rights, reporting personal data breaches, and complying with the principles. 知情权、访问权、处理其他个人权利、报告个人数据泄露，并遵守原则
• Typical examples where an exemption is adequate are for domestic purposes, law enforcement, and intelligence services processing国内目的、执法和情报服务处理
• Immigration exemption and National security and defence exemption移民豁免和国家安全与国防豁免

Automated decision making and profiling

The UK GDPR has provisions on:

• Automated individual decision-making (making a decision solely by automated means without any human involvement)自动个人决策
• Profiling (automated processing of personal data to evaluate certain things about an individual). Profiling can be part of an automated decision-making process.分析，是自动化决策过程的一部分

You can only carry out this type of decision-making where the decision is: 您只能在以下情况下做出此类决策

• Necessary for the entry into or performance of a contract; or签订或履行合同所必需的
• Authorised by domestic law applicable to the controller; or由适用于控制者的国内法授权
• Based on the individual’s explicit consent基于个人的明确同意

Other relevant legislation

PECR - Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations (EC Directive 2003) was latest updated on 29 March 2019
PECR 规范：

• 通过电子方式进行的营销，包括营销电话、电子邮件、文本和传真，
• 使用 cookie（或类似的）跟踪有关访问网站或其他电子服务的人的信息
• 公共电子通信服务的安全
• 客户隐私使用关于交通和位置数据、分项计费、线路识别服务（例如呼叫者 ID）和目录列表的通信网络或服务。

Information Commissioner’s Office - ICO信息专员办公室

The responsibilities of the Information Commissioner include:

• Compiling and maintaining a register of persons who hold personal data; 编制和维护持有个人数据的人员名册
• Serving notices to those who contravene the Act; 向违反该法的人发出通知
• Ensuring that requests for information from individuals to persons that hold data about them are honoured确保尊重个人向持有他们数据的人提出的信息请求

The Information commissioner can enforce the Act by

• Enforcement notices执行通知
• Prosecution under the act根据该法案起诉

Investigatory powers 调查权

The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA) came into force in October 2000.

Investigatory powers are the powers by which an authorised organisation can covertly gather information for investigative or intelligence purposes including aspects such as:

• Part I: Interception of communications data通信数据的拦截
• Part II: Surveillance监视
• Part III: Encryption 加密

Amended by the Investigatory Powers Act (IPA) 2016*

Both RIPA 2000 and IPA 2016 are highly controversial

the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA)
There are two distinct sets of powers under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA) relating to communications. 根据 2000 年调查权力条例法 (RIPA)，有两套不同的权力与通信有关

• First, RIPA provides powers to intercept the content of communications, for example, by listening to telephone conversations or voicemail messages 赋予拦截通信内容的权力，例如通过窃听电话交谈或语音邮件消息(Chapter 1 of Part 1 of the Act). The warrant is signed by the Home Secretary, Foreign Secretary, Northern Ireland Secretary or Scottish Ministers and oversight is provided by Interception of Communications Commissioner.
• Second is the power to acquire communications data, such as records of who contacted whom, when, from where and for how long其次是获取通信数据的权力，例如谁与谁联系、何时、从何地以及持续多长时间的记录 (Chapter 2 of Part 1 of the Act). Authorisations for the acquisition and disclosure of communications data are issued by ‘designated persons’ within the organisations seeking the data, for instance a Superintendent in a police force

Investigatory Powers Act (2016)

A Bill to make provision about the interception of communications, equipment interference and the acquisition and retention of communications data, bulk personal datasets and other information; to make provision about the treatment of material held as a result of such interception, equipment interference or acquisition or retention; to
establish the Investigatory Powers Commissioner and other Judicial Commissioners and make provision about them and other oversight arrangements; to make further provision about investigatory powers and national security; to amend sections 3 and 5 of the Intelligence Services Act 1994; and for connected purposes一项关于拦截通信、设备干扰以及获取和保留通信数据、大量个人数据集和其他信息的法案；对因此类拦截、设备干扰或获取或保留而持有的材料的处理作出规定；设立调查权专员和其他司法专员，并对他们和其他监督安排作出规定；进一步规定调查权和国家安全；修订 1994 年情报服务法第 3 和 5 条；并用于相关目的

立法首次明确规定了情报部门和警方的监视权力。
它使安全机构侵入计算机和手机的行为合法化，并允许他们访问大量存储的个人数据，即使被审查的人没有涉嫌任何不当行为

总结

• Governments must find a fair balance between respecting privacy and the freedom of information.
• Data Protection Act 1998 enforced the principle that every individual should have the right to know what information is stored about him or her on computer, and the purpose for which it is used.
o DPA 1998 was first replaced by EU GDPR and UK Data Protection Act 2018
o After the Brexit transition period, personal data processing is regulated by the UK GPDR and DPA 2018
o UK GDPR maintains the EU GPDR principles, and mostly affects transborder data transfers
o The DPA 2018 imposes obligations on data usage, and provides access rights to individuals.
o Differences to earlier DPA - greater emphasis on transparency
• Freedom of Information Act 2000: access to information held by public authorities.
• RIPA 2000 and the Investigatory Powers Act 2016 provide a statutory framework for surveillance,including ‘interception’ of data communications via an ISP. It is highly controversial.

• 政府必须在尊重隐私和信息自由之间找到公平的平衡。
• 1998 年数据保护法强制执行的原则是，每个人都应有权知道计算机上存储了哪些关于他或她的信息，以及这些信息的用途。
o DPA 1998 首先被欧盟 GDPR 和英国数据保护法 2018 取代
o 英国脱欧过渡期后，个人数据处理受英国 GPDR 和 DPA 2018 监管
o 英国 GDPR 保持欧盟 GPDR 原则，主要影响跨境数据传输
o DPA 2018 规定了数据使用义务，并为个人提供访问权限。
o 与早期 DPA 的不同之处——更加强调透明度
• 2000 年信息自由法：获取公共当局持有的信息。
• 2000 年 RIPA 和 2016 年调查权法案为监视提供了法定框架，包括通过 ISP ‘拦截’数据通信。这是非常有争议的。

计算机的社会问题

Utopia / Dystopia

• Utopian view: 乌托邦
computing will make work easier, workers happier, and increase productivity计算将使工作更轻松，员工更快乐，并提高生产力
• Dystopian view: 反乌托邦
computing will deskill workers, replace workers with machines, and enable electronic monitoring of work. 计算将使工人去技能化，用机器代替工人，并实现工作的电子监控
• Sci-fi dystopia: 科幻反乌托邦
The machines will also be unhappy

Word processors

pros

• Word processing provides obvious benefits:
• Mestakes can be easilt coerrected;
• Documents and templates can be saved and re-used;
• Grammar can be improved.
• Machine learning is now taking auto-completion to a new level

cons

• Users make many more revisions than they otherwise would do, but without necessarily improving quality;
• Can be difficult to master (for average user);
• Too many features, many of which are never used;
• Little compatibility between packages.
• Features may be of less use than they appear. Spell checkers cannot detect every error, so do not remove the need to read through the document.
• Disk failures and crashes can be catastrophic; computer systems are not as resilient as paper-based systems.

Taylorism泰勒主义

Taylorism’ results in production systems in which individual jobs are simple and
relatively unskilled. The introduction of IT into the workplace can have a similar effect to Taylorism; previously skilled tasks effectively become ‘de-skilled’.
泰勒主义导致生产系统中个人工作简单且相对不熟练。将 IT 引入工作场所可以产生与泰勒主义类似的效果；以前熟练的任务实际上变成了“去技能化”。

Effects of IT and automation IT 和自动化的影响

Deskilling去技能化

• Conceptual tasks built into computer algorithms, or transferred to a few specialists计算机算法中内置的概念性任务，或转移给少数专家
• Deskilling will be an issue which could lead to reduced productivity and demotivation生产力下降和积极性下降

Upgrading

• Automation of routine and repetitive tasks常规和重复性任务的自动化
• Growth of white collar work, and lowest level clerical workers retrained

自动化：
优点：increase quality or reduce costs，gaining an edge in a competitive market
缺点：Deskilling，lead to reduced productivity and demotivation

Problems with monitoring and deskilling监控和去技能化的问题

Monitoring may not improve productivity at all: 监控可能根本不会提高生产率：

• increased stress and atmosphere of mistrust; 增加压力和不信任气氛
• absenteeism is increased; 缺勤率增加
• higher turnover of employees; 更高的员工流动率
• staff may work at minimum acceptable level for fear that better performance will lead to raised expectations. 员工可能会在可接受的最低水平上工作，因为担心更好的表现会导致更高的期望

Deskilling often reduces employee motivation; work is monotonous and dispiriting技能化通常会降低员工的积极性；工作单调而令人沮丧

The Hawthorne studies霍桑研究

Taylorism is now widely regarded as flawed. So-called 'Hawthorne Studies‘ of late 1920s demonstrated importance of social relationships in the work place. 泰勒主义现在被广泛认为是有缺陷的。 1920 年代后期所谓的“霍桑研究”证明了社会关系在工作场所的重要性• The Hawthorne studies were carried out by the Western Electric company at their Hawthorne plant in the 1920’s. Initially, the study focused on lighting.

Two things emerged from the initial studies:

• The experimenter effect: making changes was interpreted by workers as a sign that management cared, and more generally, it just provided some mental
  stimulation that was good for morale and productivity. 实验者效应：做出改变被工人解释为管理层关心的标志，更一般地说，它只是提供了一些有利于士气和生产力的精神刺激。
• The social effect: it seemed that by being separated from the rest and being given special treatment, staff developed a certain bond and camaraderie that also increased productivity. 社会影响：似乎通过与其他人分开并给予特殊待遇，员工之间建立了一定的联系和友情，这也提高了生产力

Conclusion:
It is the way that computerisation is used which is important, not the use of computers per se. 重要的是计算机化的使用方式，而不是计算机本身的使用

• Computers can be employed in a sensitive and useful way, e.g. the drudgery of bookkeeping has been removed by spreadsheets, so that accountants can concentrate on analysis and financial modelling.
• Computers can also be used to monitor and increase the stress on employees, e.g. call centres.

工作地点

Remote working by sub-contractors 外包，但是只有少部分工作能这样
Although some work can be contracted out in this way, other activities cannot because they require knowledge of local rules or laws (e.g., auditing work) or personal interaction.
Telecommuting远程办公
早期工作表明，有伴侣的员工更有可能在家工作，但有孩子会使他们不太可能在家工作。
欧洲和北美一致认为远程办公是留住女性的好方法。由于通勤减少，它提供了更少的压力，并提供了更好的工作与生活平衡

Sociotechnical systems design社会技术系统设计

工作设计的“社会技术系统”概念起源于 1940 年代英国煤矿的实验。随后被汽车行业采用。
Conventional way of designing a car production plant:

• Technical design comes first;
• Assembly line that allows only one social system: workers stay at fixed stations and perform same task;
• Repeat same task every 30 seconds.

Sociotechnical way: 社会技术方式

• Involve workers in planning the new plant;让工人参与新工厂的规划
• Teams assemble entire subunits of a car from parts moved through the plant;团队将通过工厂移动的零件组装成汽车的整个子单元
• Team members are free to move around, rotate jobs, and have longer cycle of work.团队成员可以自由走动，轮换工作，工作周期更长。

Advantages:

• Workers have more control over quality;工人对质量有更多的控制权
• If things go wrong, workers have a greater appreciation of the whole system and can give a flexible response.

Virtual communities 虚拟社区

Computer-mediated communication
Email has disadvantages

• reduced human contact
• open to misinterpretation容易产生误解
• flame wars口水战

But also has advantages

• interest and research in virtual communities; geographical closeness not required. 对虚拟社区的兴趣和研究；不需要地理位置接近
• can be used by disadvantaged and marginal groups (e.g. the homeless) for social and political change被弱势群体和边缘群体（例如无家可归者）用于社会和政治变革

But can also be used to strengthen unacceptable groups. 但也可用于加强不可接受的群体

Social media

Can strengthen and maintain friendships and relationships
Can help with loneliness
Dissemination of information传播信息

issues
Privacy隐私

• Not clear what is visible to whom
• Third party violations of privacy

Surveillance监督

• Employers? Government? Future employers?

Cyber-bullying, stalking, threatening behaviour网络欺凌、跟踪、威胁行为

Addiction成瘾

Reduction in social contact? 减少社交

Fake news假新闻

positives
Healthcare 医疗保健

Care for the elderly 照顾老人

总结

• Technological and social changes evolve together. 技术和社会变革共同发展
• Data indicates that productivity pay-off of technology is disappointing. 数据表明技术的生产力回报令人失望
• Technology is not causing mass unemployment. There is some short-term redundancy, which may be offset by redeployment and retraining in the longer term. 技术并未造成大规模失业。存在一些短期冗余，这可能会被长期的重新部署和再培训所抵消
• Women are disproportionately affected by the exploitation of IT in the services sector of the economy. 女性在经济服务部门受到IT 开发的影响尤为严重。
• IT affects the quality of work, as well as the quantity of work (e.g. deskilling) IT 影响工作质量和工作量（例如去技能化
• Telecommuting offers benefits and disadvantages; the growth in home-working has not been as rapid as expected. 远程办公有利也有弊；在家工作的增长没有预期的那么快。
• Exploiting IT to the full requires new ways of thinking, working and managing. Sociotechnical systems design offers an interesting alternative. 充分利用 IT 需要新的思维、工作和管理方式。社会技术系统设计提供了一个有趣的选择。

Ethics道德/伦理学

素质最差最恶心人的地方

Definitions

Philosophy 哲学
The main purpose of philosophy is to critically evaluate assumptions and arguments.
Philosophy asks us to examine assumptions that people accept without question批判性地评估假设和论点，哲学要求我们检验人们毫无疑问地接受的假设
Moral philosophy 道德哲学
• Moral philosophy is inquiry about values:
o ideas of right and wrong,
o good and bad,
o what should be done and what should not be done.
• Moral philosophy is not practical in any simple sense; it cannot, and does not try to, tell us what to do. 道德哲学在任何简单意义上都不是实用的；它不能，也不会试图告诉我们该做什么。
• However, philosophical debate can conclude that a set of beliefs should definitely be rejected if:应被拒绝
o It is internally inconsistent OR it rests on a factual assumption that is false 它内部不一致，或者它基于错误的事实假设

Personal and professional ethics
The terms moral philosophy and ethics are often used interchangeably, but moral philosophy has a wider scope; it concerns values in organized social life (politics and law) as well as private and professional relationships. 道德哲学和伦理学这两个术语经常互换使用，但道德哲学的范围更广；它涉及有组织的社会生活（政治和法律）以及私人和职业关系中的价值观。

Grounding for rules of conduct行为准则的基础

Religious grounding宗教基础
Grounding in a religious system
Legal grounding法律基础
Grounding in law
Philosophical grounding 哲学基础
Grounding in philosophy

Western ethical thought 西方伦理思想，功利，康德等

来源于欧洲和中东古人的思想。源自基督教的犹太道德传统——例如托拉和圣经列举了道德法则（例如“十诫”）

Ethical theories伦理理论

Ethical theories are like scientific theories - they

• Define terms;
• Organize ideas; and
• Facilitate problem solving.

There are many ethical theories, reflecting a diversity of approaches to ethical problem solving. 有许多伦理理论，反映了解决伦理问题的方法的多样性。
Different theories give us different perspectives on an ethical dilemma. 不同的理论让我们对道德困境有不同的看法。
为了说明这一点，我们将考虑：

Utilitarianism 功利主义

seeks to produce the most utility; 寻求产生最大效用
Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to promote the reverse. 行动的正确程度与它们促进幸福的程度成正比；错误的，因为他们倾向于促进相反的情况。

An action is right (it is the action you should do) if it seems likely to you that it will produce more happiness than any alternative action. 如果你认为某项行动比任何其他行动都可能带来更多快乐，那么该行动就是正确的（这是你应该做的行动，因此：考虑那些将受到重大影响的人（和其他生物）。选择将产生“最大多数人的最大幸福”（快乐与痛苦）的行动
Utilitarianism is fundamental to risk-benefit and cost-benefit analysis是风险收益和成本收益分析的基础
人们常常为自己的利益行事，但“最大多数人的最大幸福”意味着利他主义（关心他人）

Utilitarian view of law: 功利主义的法律观

• Laws resolve conflict between self-interest and wider happiness法律解决自身利益与更广泛幸福之间的冲突
• Laws exist to promote the happiness of the community存在是为了促进社区的幸福

为什么偷东西是不对的？

• 偷窃可能会增加小偷的幸福感，但如果财产权没有意义，对整个社会都是不利的。
• 偷窃对一个人有利，但给许多其他人带来不便
• 因此，偷窃是不对的——因为它会降低整体幸福度
• 因此，应该制定保护社会免遭盗窃的法律。

他们应该：

• 减少偷窃对小偷的吸引力（例如，惩罚/监禁）。
• 但法律不应该让小偷不成比例地不快乐（这会降低总体幸福感）。

因此： 对盗窃的惩罚应该足以震慑小偷。

• Act utilitarianism行为功利主义
working out likely consequences of every action.
• Rule utilitarianism规则功利主义
avoids this. Suggests behavioural rules which result in consequences that are more favourable than unfavourable to everyone.
Should Emphasis on moral education:

行动的正确程度与它们促进幸福的程度成正比；错误的，因为他们倾向于促进相反的情况。一个谨慎的人应该意识到他们需要别人的帮助才能获得自己的幸福，并且应该通过为他们做事来诱导他们的帮助.

强调法律和政府：

• 人们通常以自身利益或幸福为目的行事。
• 法律——旨在确保社会幸福。

Utilitarianism also ignores the personal character of moral obligation
功利主义：提供了一种将伦理、法律和政府联系起来的方式。

the action is right that promotes the greatest good促进最大利益的正确行动

Intuitionism直觉主义

proposes a number of self-evident principles of right action; 提出了一些不证自明的正确行动原则
“Intuition” refers to understanding, as in understanding of self-evident truths of logic and mathematics. “直觉”指的是理解，如理解逻辑和数学的不言而喻的真理。

Intuitionists argue that utilitarians have concentrated on only a few of these self-evident principles.
冲突这些原则之间的关系必须通过理性直觉来解决（就像解决数学问题一样

Duty ethics责任伦理

contends that there are duties which should be performed (such as treating people fairly); 认为有些责任是应该履行的（例如公平对待他人）

Rights ethics权利伦理

contends that all individuals have moral rights, and that violating these is unacceptable; 主张所有人都享有道德权利，违反这些权利是不可接受的

• Basically two sides of the same coin
• Both hold that good actions respect the rights of individuals. 两者都认为好的行为尊重个人的权利
• Rights ethics was largely was formulated by Locke; his claim that individuals have basic rights which others should respect was paraphrased in the US Declaration of Independence.
• The main proponent of duty ethics was Kant.

Kant identified two types:

• Hypothetical (prudential) imperatives: “Do X IF you want Y” or “You ought to do X to achieve Y”. The action X is a means to an end. That end is Y假设的（审慎的）命令
• Categorical (moral) imperatives: No “if” involved. 绝对（道德）命令：不涉及“如果”

Kant’s three formulations of the categorical imperative

• First form: Act as if you are legislating for everyone表现得好像你在为每个人立法
• Second form: Act so as to treat human beings always as ends and never merely as means以永远将人类作为目的而不仅仅是手段的方式行事
• Third form: Act as if you were a member of a realm of ends表现得好像你是一个目的王国的成员

Virtue ethics美德伦理

discriminates between acts of good character (virtues) and acts of bad character (vices). 区分良好品格的行为（美德）和不良品格的行为（恶习）。
Virtue theory: the view that the foundation of morality is the development of good character traits, or virtues: 美德理论：认为道德的基础是良好性格特征或美德的发展的观点：
特别关注个人道德– 很难用美德来描述像政府或公司这样的非人类实体

Typical virtues:
Courage, justice, prudence, fortitude, liberality, truthfulness.
在很大程度上被功利主义等道德理论的“规则”强调所取代

Kantian ethics

categorical imperatives绝对命令
treating people as ends (respecting their rights)and not merely as means
康德确定了两种类型：

• Hypothetical (prudential) imperatives假设的（审慎的）命令：
  “Do X IF you want Y” or “You ought to do X to achieve Y”.
  The action X is a means to an end. That end is Y

• Categorical (moral) imperatives绝对（道德）命令：
  不涉及“如果”。 O
  The action involved is not a means to an end, but an end in itself.
  It is simply something you SHOULD do (no IF)
  例子：“如果你想健康，就做运动”“善待他人”

尊重人的权利 categorical interactive, treating people as ends not merely as means

康德对绝对命令的三种表述

• 第一种形式：表现得好像你在为每个人立法方法。
  In other words, when you are considering whether an action is morally right or wrong, you o should ask yourself whether you would want everyone to behave in that way.
  Treat your decision as if it was a law for everyone.
• 第二种形式：始终将人类视为目的而不仅仅是手段
  This suggests the standard of morally right action.
  By treating people as ends, you recognise that they have goals just as you have; you respect their desires.
• 第三种形式：表现得好像你是目的王国的一员
  Here, ‘realm’ means a State, a politically organised society. The idea is that you should
  Act as a member of a community,
  All of whom treat others as ends rather than means
  All of whom decide as if they were legislating for all.
  This formulation joins the first two together.

Underlying approaches两个基本方法
Consequentialist (teleological) 结果论者（目的论的）
Deontological (duty/rights) 道义（义务/权利）

Comparison of ethical theories伦理理论的比较

Intuitionism is a good model of everyday moral judgement, but principles not always self-evident. 直觉主义是日常道德判断的良好典范，但原则并不总是不证自明的

Kantian ethics involves a concept of democratic justice; this protects the innocent against arguments of social utility, a flaw of utilitarianism. 康德伦理涉及民主正义的概念。这保护了无辜者免受社会效用的争论，这是功利主义的一个缺陷
Kantian ethics tells us to treat all human beings as ends; so it cannot explain why moral obligations to relations and friends are stronger than to other people. 康德伦理学告诉我们要将所有人类视为目的；所以它无法解释为什么对亲戚和朋友的道德义务比对其他人的道德义务更强

Duty ethics and rights ethics have general problems; what if the basic rights of one person (or group) conflict with those of another? 义务伦理与权利伦理存在普遍问题；如果一个人（或群体）的基本权利与另一个人（或群体）的基本权利发生冲突怎么办

Resolution of conflict is a problem for all of the above. 解决冲突是上述所有方面的问题。

Virtue ethics is harder to apply in professional context but still raises relevant questions (e.g., is this action honest? responsible? loyal to my employer?). 美德伦理在专业背景下更难应用，但仍会引发相关问题（例如，这种行为是否诚实？负责任？忠于我的雇主？）。

A strength of both the consequential (utilitarian) approach, and the deontological (Kantian) approach is their apparent simplicity. 结果论（功利主义）方法和道义论（康德）方法的优势在于它们明显的简单性

In summary, no ethical theory is perfect - but all provide an interesting perspective on ethical dilemmas. 总而言之，没有一种伦理理论是完美的——但所有理论都为伦理困境提供了一个有趣的视角。

Utilitarianism –the action is right that promotes the greatest good
Kantian ethics – the categorical imperative, treating people as ends (respecting their rights)and not merely as means

总结

• Moral philosophy is philosophical inquiry about norms or values, ideas of right and wrong, good and bad, what should be done and what should not be done. 道德哲学是关于规范或价值观、对与错、好与坏、应该做什么和不应该做什么的哲学探究
• Ethics is the philosophical discussion of assumptions about right and wrong, good and bad, considered as general ideas and applied in the life of individuals. 伦理学是关于对与错、好与坏的假设的哲学讨论，被视为一般观念并应用于个人生活。
• Ethical dilemmas occur when one or more moral principles are in conflict当一项或多项道德原则发生冲突时，就会出现道德困境

Professional Ethics for Information and Computer Scientists

Professionalisation

• Occupational groups adopt ethical codes in order to demonstrate that they deserve to be called a profession.
• A code of ethics holds the profession accountable to the public. 道德准则要求该行业对公众负责。
• This tends to yield a payoff in terms of public trust and consequent social and economic rewards. 这往往会在公众信任和随之而来的社会和经济回报方面产生回报

Protection of group interests

• Professions use codes of conduct to restrict activities of non-members,
  thereby establishing a monopoly for the profession’s services. 专业使用行为准则来限制非成员的活动，从而建立对专业服务的垄断。
• By demonstrating that they are able to control their membership, professions
  can convince the public that they deserve to be self-regulating. 通过证明他们有能力控制他们的会员，专业人士可以说服公众他们应该自我约束
• Education. Codes of ethics explicitly state what behaviour is acceptable. As such, they act as an aid to individual decision making. 道德规范明确规定了哪些行为是可以接受的。因此，它们可以帮助个人做出决策。
• Enforcement. An ethical code can also be used to discipline or deter. 道德规范明确规定了哪些行为是可以接受的。因此，它们可以帮助个人做出决策。
• It may specify when the norms of a profession have been violated, and indicate that sanctions such as suspension or expulsion will be imposed.
• Principles - Ethical codes aim to lay out a set of principles which function as the basis for specific obligations. 道德规范旨在制定一套原则，作为特定义务的基础
• Ideals - Also, a code may express ideals, which will not always be strictly adhered to, i.e. members should do this rather than members shall do this. 此外，准则可能表达了理念，但并不总是被严格遵守，即成员应该这样做而不是成员应该这样做
• Rules - An ethical code may contain a specific set of rules which apply to concrete situations. However, attempts to specify exhaustive lists of do’s and don’ts are often unsuccessful. 道德准则可能包含适用于具体情况的一组特定规则。然而，尝试详细说明该做和不该做的清单往往是不成功的
• Rights
  As well as stating the obligations and duties of the professional, the code may indicate rights of members and indicate the obligations of the professional body to its members. 除了阐明专业人士的义务和义务外，守则还可以指明成员的权利和专业机构对其成员的义务

computing professionals have different kinds of obligations

• Obligations to society
• Obligations to their employers
• Obligations to their clients
• Obligations to other professionals and professional organisations

How do ethical problems arise

Computers alter relationships between people
Data communications take place without physical contact of the people involved, so the visual and aural senses cannot always help to convey meaning. 数据通信是在相关人员没有身体接触的情况下进行的，因此视觉和听觉感官并不总是有助于传达意义
Electronic communication occurs so quickly that one may not have time to consider the implications of the information before it has been sent andreceived. 电子通信发生得如此之快，以至于在发送和接收信息之前，人们可能没有时间考虑信息的含义

Computer professionals have power
Technology puts power in the hands of computer professionals through access to financial, medical and military information. This power can be abused. 技术通过访问金融、医疗和军事信息将权力交到计算机专业人员手中。这种权力可能会被滥用。

The nature of electronic information电子信息的性质
Computers allow rapid processing, communication, copying and printing of intellectual property. This introduces new ethical issues of copyright, plagiarism, piracy, eavesdropping and invasion of privacy. 计算机允许知识产权的快速处理、通信、复制和打印。这引入了版权、剽窃、盗版、窃听和侵犯隐私等新的伦理问题

Society is vulnerable to the actions of computer professionals会容易受到计算机专业人员行为的影响
The general public do not understand the dangers of projects under the control of computer professionals. 一般公众不了解计算机专业人员控制下的项目的危险性
Clients at the mercy of computer professionals受计算机专业人员支配的客户
Many clients have no understanding of how their computer systems work. The process of costing software projects is poorly understood. 许多客户不了解他们的计算机系统是如何工作的。人们对软件项目成本核算的过程知之甚少

Codes of Conduct

Three professional computing bodies that have developed ethical codes for their members are:

• ACM: Association for Computing Machinery
• BCS: British Computer Society
• Public interest公共利益
• Professional competence and integrity专业能力和诚信
• Duty to relevant authority 对相关当局的责任
• Duty to the profession对职业的责任
• IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

BCS Code: Definitions

BCS code of conduct: rules covering four main areas:
o Public interest公共利益
o Professional competence and integrity专业能力和诚信
o Duty to relevant authority有关当局的责任
o Duty to the profession职业责任

• Legislation
  The term “Legislation” means any applicable laws, statutes and regulations.
• Third Parties
  The term ‘Third Parties’ includes any person or organisation that might be affected by your activities in your professional capacity, irrespective of whether they are directly aware or involved in those activities.
• Relevant Authority
  The term “Relevant Authority” in this document is used to identify the person(s) or organisation(s) which has / have authority over the activity of individuals in their professional capacity. For practising BCS members this is normally an employer or client. For student members, this is normally an academic institution

BCS Code: Public interest

• You shall:
a. have due regard for public health, privacy, security and wellbeing of others and the environment.对公众健康、隐私、安全和他人福祉以及环境给予应有的重视。
b. have due regard for the legitimate rights of Third Parties.适当考虑第三方的合法权利。
c. conduct your professional activities without discrimination on the grounds of sex, sexual orientation, marital status, nationality, colour, race, ethnic origin, religion, age or disability, or of any other condition or requirement开展您的专业活动，不受基于性别、性取向、婚姻状况、国籍、肤色、种族、民族本源、宗教、年龄或残疾或任何其他条件或要求的歧视
d. promote equal access to the benefits of IT and seek to promote the inclusion of all sectors in society wherever opportunities arise.促进平等获得 IT 的好处，并在机会出现时寻求促进社会所有部门的包容。

BCS Code: Professional competence and integrity

a. only undertake to do work or provide a service that is within your professional competence. 仅承诺从事您专业能力范围内的工作或提供服务
b. NOT claim any level of competence that you do not possess. 不要声称您不具备任何水平的能力。
c. develop your professional knowledge, skills and competence on a continuing basis, maintaining awareness of technological developments, procedures, and standards that are relevant to your field. 持续发展您的专业知识、技能和能力，保持对与您所在领域相关的技术发展、程序和标准的认识
d. ensure that you have the knowledge and understanding of Legislation and that you comply with such Legislation, in carrying out your professional responsibilities. 确保您了解和理解立法，并在履行您的专业职责时遵守此类立法。
e. respect and value alternative viewpoints and, seek, accept and offer honest criticisms of work. 尊重和重视不同的观点，寻求、接受和提供对工作的诚实批评。
f. avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious or negligent action or inaction. 避免因虚假、恶意或疏忽作为或不作为而伤害他人、损害他人财产、名誉或工作。
g. reject and will not make any offer of bribery or unethical inducement拒绝并且不会提供任何贿赂或不道德的引诱

BCS Code: Duty to relevant authority

a. carry out your professional responsibilities with due care and diligence in accordance with the Relevant Authority’s requirements whilst exercising your professional judgement at all times. 以应有的谨慎和勤奋履行您的专业职责，同时始终行使您的专业判断力
b. seek to avoid any situation that may give rise to a conflict of interest between you and your Relevant Authority. 设法避免任何可能引起您与您的相关当局之间的利益冲突的情况
c. accept professional responsibility for your work and for the work of colleagues who are defined in a given context as working under your supervision. 对您的工作以及在特定情况下定义为在您的监督下工作的同事的工作承担专业责任。
d. NOT disclose or authorise to be disclosed, or use for personal gain or to benefit a third party, confidential information except with the permission of your Relevant Authority, or as required by Legislation. 非获得相关当局的许可或法律要求，否则不得披露或授权披露或使用机密信息谋取个人利益或使第三方受益
e. NOT misrepresent or withhold information on the performance of products, systems or services (unless lawfully bound by a duty of confidentiality not to disclose such information), or take advantage of the lack of relevant knowledge or inexperience of others. 不得歪曲或隐瞒有关产品、系统或服务性能的信息（除非依法受保密义务约束不得披露此类信息），或利用他人缺乏相关知识或经验不足的情况

BCS Code: Duty to the profession

a. accept your personal duty to uphold the reputation of the profession and not take any action which could bring the profession into disrepute. 接受维护行业声誉的个人责任，不采取任何可能损害行业声誉的行动。
b. seek to improve professional standards through participation in their development, use and enforcement. 参与其制定、使用和执行来寻求提高专业标准
c. uphold the reputation and good standing of BCS, the Chartered Institute for IT. 维护特许 IT 协会 BCS 的声誉和良好信誉
d. act with integrity and respect in your professional relationships with all members of BCS and with members of other professions with whom you work in a professional capacity. 在与 BCS 的所有成员以及与您以专业身份共事的其他专业成员的专业关系中，以正直和尊重的方式行事。
e. encourage and support fellow members in their professional development. 鼓励和支持其他成员的专业发展

Codes of Conduct are a means by which professional organisations can control their membership and avoid external regulation. 行为准则是专业组织控制其成员资格并避免外部监管的一种方式
o They also act as a guide to professional decision making. 作为专业决策的指南
o Ethical problems often arise because of the special nature of computer technology由于计算机技术的特殊性，伦理问题经常出现

The BCS , IEEE and ACM have established professional codes of conduct. They are flawed缺陷, but have some merit优点

Bias in computer systems

Bias can take different forms

• Pre-existing bias
  An important day-to-day application of software is automated decision making
  A system could implement a pre-existing bias
• Technical bias
  Some technical decisions can influence matters significantly for some users,
• Emergent bias
  This is bias which emerges over time as the system’s use changes

Value sensitive design

Friedman, Kahn and Borning (2008)

What it involves
• Value sensitive design involves an interactive process that examines conceptual, empirical and technical issues价值敏感设计涉及一个检查概念、经验和技术问题的交互过程
• Conceptual 概念性– how are values supported or diminished by designs计如何支持或削弱价值
• Empirical 经验性– researching understandings and experiences of those affected by application研究受应用影响的人的理解和经验
• Technical 技术性– identifying values and developing technical mechanisms that support them确定价值并开发支持它们的技术机制

Computer ethics and value sensitive design计算机伦理和价值敏感设计

Helen Nissenbaum (2001) How computer systems embody values
Information technology can change society – but technology is also developed on the basis of certain values.
Value sensitive design • Friedman, Kahn and Borning (2008)

复习总结

立法时间轴

往年卷知识点考前精简速通

Critically evaluate the action at moral philosophical thought

从哲学角度批判一个行为
先解释该哲学，再具体案例分析行为和哲学是否正确，需要有个论点

• Utilitarianism – the action is right that promotes the greatest good
  行为主人做的事是否真的让利益最大化了
• Kantian ethics – the categorical imperative, treating people as ends and not merely as means
  康德主义旨在尊重人的权利，行为主人做的事是否将对象用作手段as means /尊重权利/尊重愿望，如果是，不正确，如果不是，则正确。

data prodection

The relevant legislation is the GDPR as implemented by the Data Protection Act 2018

• data controller – A controller determines the purposes and means of processing personal data
• data processor–A processor is responsible for processing personal data on behalf of a controller

Personal data means any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person (‘data subject’)
判断数据是否符合个人数据的定义

• UK GDPR seven key principles:
  Lawfulness, fairness and transparency
  Purpose limitation
  Data minimisation
  Accuracy
  Storge limitation
  Integrity and security
  Accountability

例子：
JohnnyCab is keeping data for a long time – this may break principles 5 (storage limitation) of the GDPR; you might otherwise argue that customers must have given permission for storage over the long term [5%]
Customers need to have given permission for their data to be used for analysis [5%]
Principle 6 (integrity and confidentiality) has been breached –MegaCloud do not appear to have had adequate security measures (well-known weakness had not been patched) [5%]
By not recording and reporting a data breach of which they are aware, JohnnyCab are in breach of principle 7 (accountability)
JohnnyCab 长期保留数据——这可能违反 GDPR 的原则 5（存储限制）；否则，您可能会争辩说，客户必须授予长期存储许可。客户需要授予其数据用于分析的许可
原则 6（完整性和机密性）已被违反 – MegaCloud似乎没有采取足够的安全措施（众所周知的弱点尚未修补）
通过不记录和报告他们知道的数据泄露，JohnnyCab 违反了原则 7（问责制）

criminal liability

计算机misuse与criminal的法律

• 1968年的theft act

will have to demonstrate that the person realised they were being dishonest

• 1990的computer misuse act

Unauthorised access 12 months punish
Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences 12 months punish or 5 years indictment
Unauthorised modification 12 months punish or 10 years indictment

诈骗法律

• Fraud act 2006

Section 2 Fraud by false representation such as phishing and pharming
Section 4 Fraud by abuse of position
Section 11 Fraud by failing to disclose information
Punish: imprisonment from 12 months to 10 years

保密法law of confidence

This is concerned with the protection of trade secrets, secrets of a personal nature and secrets concerning the government of the country.

While take action, requires three elements:

1. must have the necessary quality of confidence about it.
2. an obligation of confidence was imposed
3. There must be an unauthorised use of that information

具有保密度的信息示例：
o 关于新的或改进的计算机系统、硬件或软件的想法。 o 客户名单和相关信息。 o 存储在计算机数据库中的大部分信息都是机密的。 o 公司未来的研发、生产和营销战略

social problem

自动化
优点：减少职员雇佣费，let repetitive task to automatic, 提高质量或降低成本，在竞争激烈的市场中获得优势
缺点：deskilling，生产力productivity和积极性demotivation下降

contract law

先说contract 关系，有几个提几个，基本上两两有contract of employment，contract of service

• Consumer Rights Act (2015) 讲service

要先确定题干中是不是有服务关系
其次判断商品是否符合目的，是否和描述的一致，质量是否让人满意
This implies terms into the lease agreement requiring that it be carried out with a reasonable degree of care and skill
然后怎么resonable

• Unfair contract terms act 1977 讲：
  Business liability for death and personal injury caused by negligence cannot be excluded or limited in any way.

• Consumer contract regulation (2013) 讲数字下载 可以被取消不再是服务和商品

• Consumer Protection Act 1987 讲有缺陷的产品和相关产品责任责任

Negligence

您应该推断 DWC 和 BigBot 是否对受伤的员工负有注意义务——这将取决于伤害是否可以合理预见 [5%]。尽管有制造商的警告，DWC 是否疏忽了允许机器人和人类操作员近距离工作？ – 关于这一点的一些讨论 [5%]。需要证明控制软件中的错误是疏忽，即它不会由称职的专业人员造成。 [5%] 一个好的答案将涉及共同过失的概念（例如，由于 DWC 忽略安全警告的行为，BigBot 的责任可能会减少[5%]

Negligent misstatement

Liability for negligence is significant with regard to software that provides advice
对于提供建议的软件，过失责任很重要

Tortious liability for negligent advice is called negligent misstatement.
疏忽建议的侵权责任称为疏忽错误陈述。

If advice given by decision support system is incorrect, developers of the system may be liable in negligent misstatement to the recipient

如果决策支持系统给出的建议不正确，系统的开发者可能会因疏忽误报接受者而承担责任

Product liability

受伤的员工隶属公司，公司是消费者但是受伤的员工不是
Vacarious liability 第三方责任承担

copyright

如果该部分对程序的功能而言很重要，那么即使复制该程序的很小一部分也将构成侵权
‘substantial part’ quality is important than quantity
相关立法 CDPA

• 不知道另一个软件的存在
  Not infringement

• 知道存在但没见过
  Not infringement

• 目的相同但是编写方式不一样
  Not infringement

• 以前的员工，没用相同
  Possible infringement，可能结构相似

• 用不同的语言反编译decompile
  Definitely infringement
  The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 立法copyright
  Copyright computer program regulation 1992 编译和反编译
  也give a right to make a backup copy if it is necessary for lawful use – the term in the licence is irrelevant
  Infringement
  if the developer intends to use the information obtained by decompilation to develop competing products, the decompilation right does not apply
  他们用不同的语言重写程序是无关紧要的；只是反编译程序的行为是侵犯版权

• 结构非常相似，并且使用相同的编程语言编写。然而，程序代码中唯一的文字相似之处是实现算法的部分，
  Probably Infringement
  case law, e.g. IBCOS vs Barclays Mercantile (1994)记不住下一个
  Is standard algorithm [5%], hence there is no expression to be copied

• 并没有抄袭的任何程序代码。但是，游戏的理念是一样的，游戏体验是一样的，在画面设计和使用的图标上有明显的相似之处
  Definitely Infringement
  screen designs and icons can be protected by copyright
  case law, Whelan v Jaslow (1987) Apple v Microsoft 记住一个算我赢look and feel
  案例Flanders vs Richardson 不一样的案例 应该是反面案例

开盒退款
case law, Beta vs Adobe
Case law indicates that the contract for supply of the software (licence) is not separate from the contract for supply of the physical media (contract of sale

背不下看懂就行了大概吧的案例

版权

IBCOS Computers Ltd. v Barclays Mercantile Highland Finance Ltd (UK) (1994)

IBCOS 的程序员开发了一个账户包，后来，为巴克莱银行制作了一个竞争包
质量比数量重要，检测侵权是质量

Whelan v Jaslow (1987)

智慧产权的案例，美国计算机软件版权的原则的一个里程碑案例，结构相似的软件，结果是法院在发现屏幕的整体结构、顺序和排列，或“总概念和感觉”，可以受版权保护。
发现screen的整体结构、顺序和排列，或整体概念和感觉，可以受版权保护

The Test Applied in Computer Associates International v Altai (1992)

CA 创建了一个用于安排计算机作业的程序，其中包含一个名为 ADAPTER 的组件。Altai 还创建了一个调度程序。 CA 的一名员工带着 ADAPTER 源代码搬到了Altai，并说服Altai重组他们的系统。大约 30% 的新系统是从 CA 源代码中提取的。
• Altai 使用不同的程序员从头开始重写了违规部分——法官认为新版本没有侵犯版权。

建议三步测试非文字版权侵权：
Abstraction
识别非文字元素。这涉及追踪设计者从代码回到原始程序功能的步骤。
Filtration
该程序的某些元素（创意、效率决定的代码、公共领域的代码）不受版权法保护。这些元素被过滤掉以识别可保护材料的核心
Comparison
确定被告是否复制了受保护表达的实质部分

Apple v Microsoft (1988-1992)

经典案例 好背好记
Apple 声称 Windows 的外观和感觉是基于 Macintosh GUI
结果是Apple 无法为图形用户界面的想法或桌面隐喻的想法获得类似专利的保护

在 Apple 的案例中，也参考了早年 Xerox的案例
Xerox还起诉Apple ，声称 Mac 的 GUI 很大程度上基于Xerox的。地区法院驳回了 Xerox 的索赔，但没有说明 Apple 的 GUI 是否侵犯了 Xerox 的Xerox Lisp machine (1985)

John Richardson Computers v Flanders (1993)

英国的非文字复制案例
Richardson写了一个程序，后来又写了另一个程序让别人做同样的事情。承认没有故意抄袭

Apple Computer Inc. vs. Apple Corps (1989-2006)

著名苹果商标纠纷

Apple v Computer Edge (1983)

根据 1968澳大利亚版权法，作品不属于文学作品

Northern Office Micro Computers (PTY) Ltd. v Rosenstein (1982)

南非的一个重要案例：Rosenstein 受雇于 NOMC 开发软件，然后辞职并要求获得他开发的软件的版权。南非法律不允许他的雇主主张版权所有权。 NOMC 声称适用保密法则
决定：适用保密法，但保护应受到限制。员工不应复制程序，但不应期望员工擦除记忆，这将是对使用过去经验和技能的不合理限制

合同法

Salvage Association v CAP Financial Services (1995)

SA 希望将其会计系统计算机化——与软件公司 CAP Financial Services Ltd 签订合同
软件是在 ORACLE 中开发的，但在用户培训中明显存在许多错误（CAP 团队在使用 ORACLE 方面经验不足）浪费时间，在其辩护中，CAP 引用了免责条款试图减免自己的责任
基于Supply of Good and Services Act，以及根据Unfair Contract terms Act(1977) 的免责条款裁决为 SA 有理

St Albans City and District Council v International Computers Ltd (1996)

council 从 ICL 订购了一个计算机系统来管理当地的“人头税”，但是因为软件错误，该地区的人口被高估，居民钱被少收，并且委员会损失了 130 万英镑

Comyn Ching Ltd v Radius plc (1997)

Comyn Ching Ltd (CCL) 希望整合其计算机系统。Radius plc 受命执行此操作。Radius plc 两次提出在合同签署前进行可行性研究，费用为 6930 英镑。然而，CCL两次拒绝了这个提议。且对计算机知之甚少，但决定不聘请顾问。 CCL对 Radius plc 的解决方案不满意，并起诉他们要求超过 300 万英镑的损失。 认为 Radius 欠他们注意义务，这包括事先调查他们的要求，无需额外费用。
法官拒绝了要求——他认为 CCL 的要求在为难，流动的盛宴

Beta Computers Ltd vs. Adobe Systems Ltd 1996

Beta Computers 向 Adob​​e Systems 提供由 Informix Software Inc. 生产的软件。该软件有一个收缩包装许可——“打开 Informix S.I. 软件包表示您接受这些条款和条件”。 Adob​​e 声称它有权在软件打开之前拒收该软件。Beta 就软件成本提起诉讼。

案件在苏格兰提起。法官裁定：
软件供应与媒体供应不可分开，合同是在打开包装时签订的，而不是在销售时签订的。Adob​​e 可以退回软件

计算机misuse滥用

Oxford v Moss (1978)

学生在考试前“借”了一张试卷。因盗窃机密信息而被起诉。但被宣告无罪，理由是信息不能被视为财产，因此不能被盗。
地方法官裁定confidence在于控制考试发布的权利，是对财产的权利，而不是财产本身。

R v. Lloyd, Bhuee & Ali (1985)

一家电影院的放映员和另外 2 人从电影院拿来电影并复制，但归还了电影。 盗版以可观的利润出售。
最初认定串谋盗窃，但在上诉中被推翻。因为他们No intention to permanently deprive。
A conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to carry out an unlawful act共谋是两个或两个以上的人达成一项实施非法行为的协议。
Conspiracy to defraud (common law) may be applicable to computer fraud, since deception need not be proven.串谋诈骗（普通法）可能适用于计算机诈骗，因为不需要证明欺骗

R v Paul Bedworth (1993)

Paul Bedworth 在 CMA 的第一次审判中被宣告无罪。 Bedworth 清楚地知道他在 1990 年 8 月Computer Misuse
Act生效后的黑客行为是违法的，但他停不下来。

DPP v Bignell (1998)

两名警官使用警察国家计算机获取他们想要的汽车的详细信息，用于与警察职责无关的私人目的。
根据 1990 年 CMA 的 S1 被指控未经授权访问
地方法官根据 S1 将他们定罪。但他们经过上诉上议院再次推翻了决定，访问计算机资料的授权不扩展到为未经授权的目的访问计算机资料
就是他们实际上是有权访问。。

DPP v Ellis (2001)

纽卡斯尔大学的前学生。使用非开放访问计算机浏览网站，但当时计算机被之前的用户登录。 管理员告诉他没有使用非开放访问计算机的许可。
根据 Computer Misuse Act年计算机滥用法案 S1 被定罪

关于他所做的就像捡起一张废弃的报纸并阅读它的说法被驳回。

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