先来看一段代码：

# ~*~ Twisted - A Python tale ~*~from time import sleep# Hello, I'm a developer and I mainly setup Wordpress.
def install_wordpress(customer): # Our hosting company Threads Ltd. is bad. I start installation and... print "Start installation for", customer # ...then wait till the installation finishes successfully. It is # boring and I'm spending most of my time waiting while consuming # resources (memory and some CPU cycles). It's because the process # is *blocking*. sleep(3) print "All done for", customer # I do this all day long for our customers def developer_day(customers): for customer in customers: install_wordpress(customer) developer_day(["Bill", "Elon", "Steve", "Mark"])

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运行一下，结果如下所示：

$ ./deferreds.py 1
------ Running example 1 ------
Start installation for Bill
All done for Bill
Start installation
... * Elapsed time: 12.03 seconds

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这是一段顺序执行的代码。四个消费者，为一个人安装需要3秒的时间，那么四个人就是12秒。这样处理不是很令人满意，所以看一下第二个使用了线程的例子：

import threading# The company grew. We now have many customers and I can't handle the
# workload. We are now 5 developers doing exactly the same thing.
def developers_day(customers): # But we now have to synchronize... a.k.a. bureaucracy lock = threading.Lock() # def dev_day(id): print "Goodmorning from developer", id # Yuck - I hate locks... lock.acquire() while customers: customer = customers.pop(0) lock.release() # My Python is less readable install_wordpress(customer) lock.acquire() lock.release() print "Bye from developer", id # We go to work in the morning devs = [threading.Thread(target=dev_day, args=(i,)) for i in range(5)] [dev.start() for dev in devs] # We leave for the evening [dev.join() for dev in devs] # We now get more done in the same time but our dev process got more # complex. As we grew we spend more time managing queues than doing dev # work. We even had occasional deadlocks when processes got extremely # complex. The fact is that we are still mostly pressing buttons and # waiting but now we also spend some time in meetings. developers_day(["Customer %d" % i for i in xrange(15)])

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运行一下：

$ ./deferreds.py 2
------ Running example 2 ------
Goodmorning from developer 0Goodmorning from developer
1Start installation forGoodmorning from developer 2
Goodmorning from developer 3Customer 0
... from developerCustomer 13 3Bye from developer 2 * Elapsed time: 9.02 seconds

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这次是一段并行执行的代码，使用了5个工作线程。15个消费者每个花费3s意味着总共45s的时间，不过用了5个线程并行执行总共只花费了9s的时间。这段代码有点复杂，很大一部分代码是用于管理并发，而不是专注于算法或者业务逻辑。另外，程序的输出结果看起来也很混杂，可读性也天津市。即使是简单的多线程的代码同样也难以写得很好，所以我们转为使用Twisted：

# For years we thought this was all there was... We kept hiring more
# developers, more managers and buying servers. We were trying harder
# optimising processes and fire-fighting while getting mediocre
# performance in return. Till luckily one day our hosting
# company decided to increase their fees and we decided to # switch to Twisted Ltd.! from twisted.internet import reactor from twisted.internet import defer from twisted.internet import task # Twisted has a slightly different approach def schedule_install(customer): # They are calling us back when a Wordpress installation completes. # They connected the caller recognition system with our CRM and # we know exactly what a call is about and what has to be done next. # # We now design processes of what has to happen on certain events. def schedule_install_wordpress(): def on_done(): print "Callback: Finished installation for", customer print "Scheduling: Installation for", customer return task.deferLater(reactor, 3, on_done) # def all_done(_): print "All done for", customer # # For each customer, we schedule these processes on the CRM # and that # is all our chief-Twisted developer has to do d = schedule_install_wordpress() d.addCallback(all_done) # return d # Yes, we don't need many developers anymore or any synchronization. # ~~ Super-powered Twisted developer ~~ def twisted_developer_day(customers): print "Goodmorning from Twisted developer" # # Here's what has to be done today work = [schedule_install(customer) for customer in customers] # Turn off the lights when done join = defer.DeferredList(work) join.addCallback(lambda _: reactor.stop()) # print "Bye from Twisted developer!" # Even his day is particularly short! twisted_developer_day(["Customer %d" % i for i in xrange(15)]) # Reactor, our secretary uses the CRM and follows-up on events! reactor.run()

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运行结果：

------ Running example 3 ------
Goodmorning from Twisted developer
Scheduling: Installation for Customer 0
....
Scheduling: Installation for Customer 14 Bye from Twisted developer! Callback: Finished installation for Customer 0 All done for Customer 0 Callback: Finished installation for Customer 1 All done for Customer 1 ... All done for Customer 14 * Elapsed time: 3.18 seconds

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这次我们得到了完美的执行代码和可读性强的输出结果，并且没有使用线程。我们并行地处理了15个消费者，也就是说，本来需要45s的执行时间在3s之内就已经完成。这个窍门就是我们把所有的阻塞的对sleep()的调用都换成了Twisted中对等的task.deferLater()和回调函数。由于现在处理的操作在其他地方进行，我们就可以毫不费力地同时服务于15个消费者。

前面提到处理的操作发生在其他的某个地方。现在来解释一下，算术运算仍然发生在CPU内，但是现在的CPU处理速度相比磁盘和网络操作来说非常快。所以给CPU提供数据或者从CPU向内存或另一个CPU发送数据花费了大多数时间。我们使用了非阻塞的操作节省了这方面的时间，例如，task.deferLater()使用了回调函数，当数据已经传输完成的时候会被激活。

另一个很重要的一点是输出中的Goodmorning from Twisted developer和Bye from Twisted developer!信息。在代码开始执行时就已经打印出了这两条信息。如果代码如此早地执行到了这个地方，那么我们的应用真正开始运行是在什么时候呢？答案是，对于一个Twisted应用（包括Scrapy）来说是在reactor.run()里运行的。在调用这个方法之前，必须把应用中可能用到的每个Deferred链准备就绪，然后reactor.run()方法会监视并激活回调函数。

注意，reactor的主要一条规则就是，你可以执行任何操作，只要它足够快并且是非阻塞的。

现在好了，代码中没有那么用于管理多线程的部分了，不过这些回调函数看起来还是有些杂乱。可以修改成这样：

# Twisted gave us utilities that make our code way more readable!
@defer.inlineCallbacks
def inline_install(customer): print "Scheduling: Installation for", customer yield task.deferLater(reactor, 3, lambda: None) print "Callback: Finished installation for", customer print "All done for", customer def twisted_developer_day(customers): ... same as previously but using inline_install() instead of schedule_install() twisted_developer_day(["Customer %d" % i for i in xrange(15)]) reactor.run()

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运行的结果和前一个例子相同。这段代码的作用和上一个例子是一样的，但是看起来更加简洁明了。inlineCallbacks生成器可以使用一些一些Python的机制来使得inline_install()函数暂停或者恢复执行。inline_install()函数变成了一个Deferred对象并且并行地为每个消费者运行。每次yield的时候，运行就会中止在当前的inline_install()实例上，直到yield的Deferred对象完成后再恢复运行。

现在唯一的问题是，如果我们不止有15个消费者，而是有，比如10000个消费者时又该怎样？这段代码会同时开始10000个同时执行的序列（比如HTTP请求、数据库的写操作等等）。这样做可能没什么问题，但也可能会产生各种失败。在有巨大并发请求的应用中，例如Scrapy，我们经常需要把并发的数量限制到一个可以接受的程度上。在下面的一个例子中，我们使用task.Cooperator()来完成这样的功能。Scrapy在它的Item Pipeline中也使用了相同的机制来限制并发的数目（即CONCURRENT_ITEMS设置）：

@defer.inlineCallbacks
def inline_install(customer): ... same as above # The new "problem" is that we have to manage all this concurrency to # avoid causing problems to others, but this is a nice problem to have. def twisted_developer_day(customers): print "Goodmorning from Twisted developer" work = (inline_install(customer) for customer in customers) # # We use the Cooperator mechanism to make the secretary not # service more than 5 customers simultaneously. coop = task.Cooperator() join = defer.DeferredList([coop.coiterate(work) for i in xrange(5)]) # join.addCallback(lambda _: reactor.stop()) print "Bye from Twisted developer!" twisted_developer_day(["Customer %d" % i for i in xrange(15)]) reactor.run() # We are now more lean than ever, our customers happy, our hosting # bills ridiculously low and our performance stellar. # ~*~ THE END ~*~

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运行结果：

$ ./deferreds.py 5
------ Running example 5 ------
Goodmorning from Twisted developer
Bye from Twisted developer!
Scheduling: Installation for Customer 0
... Callback: Finished installation for Customer 4 All done for Customer 4 Scheduling: Installation for Customer 5 ... Callback: Finished installation for Customer 14 All done for Customer 14 * Elapsed time: 9.19 seconds

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从上面的输出中可以看到，程序运行时好像有5个处理消费者的槽。除非一个槽空出来，否则不会开始处理下一个消费者的请求。在本例中，处理时间都是3秒，所以看起来像是5个一批次地处理一样。最后得到的性能跟使用线程是一样的，但是这次只有一个线程，代码也更加简洁更容易写出正确的代码。