C，DennisRitchie的不朽遗产

摘要：C语言是Dennis在70年代早期创建的，是他和Ken Thompson在开发Unix操作系统时的一部分工作成果。当C编译器可用之后，C就迅速地成为Unix上开发软件的首选语言。

今天，我们聚集于此，悼念Dennis Ritchie，缅怀他在软件方面开创的深远贡献。

几乎所有人都听说过“软件”一词，但只有少数人知道软件是什么，如何工作，世上有多少软件。在哥伦比亚大学的计算机科学入门课程上，我用这样一个问题作为开场白：今天世上有多少软件在服役？要充分考虑到各方面的软件系统，包括工业，政府，学术，社会，不要算重了。你们认为创造所有这些系统需要写多少行代码？

过了一会儿，一些勇敢的学生举起手说“一百万”。又有其他学生说“不，我想应该更多一点，大概一千万”。接着我会提到，光微软的Windows XP操作系统就有四千五百万行源代码，我看到的文章说几年前SAP的商业应用程序环境的代码估计已经超过了二亿五千万行。

举了几个大型软件系统的例子后，我最终会说没人会知道这个问题的确切答案，但可以估算出目前世界上在运行的代码至少有一万亿行。我的理由如下：假定世界上大概有五百万程序员，具有职业水准的程序员的平均产出是--每年大约有2500到5000行经过测试，具有文档的代码。这样看的话，每年会产出几十亿行新代码。程序员们已经写了几十年的软件，很容易得出总共会有成千上万亿行代码。丢弃旧有软件是非常困难的，这样遗留的代码数量会越来越庞大。

不过软件的社会影响力远不如它应得的，伟大的软件创造者的社会影响力就更远远不如了。可以做个小实验，Google名字“Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie”得到97000个结果，作为对比，“Justin Drew Bieber”Google得到的结果却有两千万。

为了了解Dennis对社会的巨大贡献和影响，可以先看看他在C和Unix上的工作。首先我们先追述一下历史，C语言是Dennis在70年代早期创建的，是他和Ken Thompson在开发Unix操作系统时的一部分工作成果。当C编译器可用之后，C就迅速地成为Unix上开发软件的首选语言。

短短几年内，C成了开发的通用语言，甚至在Unix操作系统之外也是如此。比如，微软实现Windows操作系统也是用C语言。事实上，现今世上许多紧要关键的软件系统都是用C写的。没有Dennis的发明，你打不了电话，坐不了飞机，开不了车。我收到来自于工作在NASA的Gerard Holzmann的笔记，其中的内容可作为C的伟大之处的显著证明。Gerard说：刚刚着陆在盖尔陨石坑的NASA好奇号火星车，有着令人惊叹的空中起重机下降操纵系统，它是由380000行ISO标准C控制的。Dennis的发明走出了贝尔实验室的Unix工作室，来到了火星的盖尔陨石坑，这期间过了40年。

另一个衡量Dennis在软件方面的影响力可以参看在C语言之后，有多少种重要的新编程语言是直接继承C或者受到了C的强烈影响。大约在Dennis发明C十年后，Bjarne Stoustrup加入了贝尔实验室，并在C语言中加入了面向对象和类，从而创建了C++。我想可以很确定的说大多数的软件系统中有很多都是用C或C++写的，或者说是同时使用了这两者。

但C++并不是唯一一个受到C影响的编程语言。其他今天非常流行的计算机语言--C#、Java、Javascript、Object-C、PHP，它们都是脱胎于C。事实上，我可以大胆的说，现今世上几乎所有人们用的主要软件系统都是用C或受C影响的语言写的。

从个人经历来说，我在编程语言及编译器的研究及教学兴趣受到了Dennis的重要影响。举个例子，1977年Brian Kernighan，Peter Weinberger和我开发了一种名为Awk的数据解析语言。Awk程序是一系列模式-动作语句组成。模式是正则表达式和数字的布尔组合，动作是C风格的语句。

另外两种领域专用语言在贝尔实验室的更早些时候就创建出来了，它们有着相同的模式-动作范式。在70年代中期，Michael Lesk和Eric Schmidt开发了Lex语言，用来创建文本解析工具及编译器的词法分析前端。与此同时，Steve Johnson设计了Yacc语言，用来创建编译器的语法分析器及其他语言的翻译工具。Lex和Yacc都用了C风格的语句来描述动作语义，甚至之后几十年这两个工具依然是现代编译器课程的主要内容。

我在哥伦比亚大学计算机语言及编译器课程中，让学生五人一组，每组都要设计和实现一个具有创造性的新语言。这些小组用Lex和Yacc来生成他们的语言解释器。因为使用这两个工具来生成一个可工作的编译器非常简单，学生们可以把精力用来进行语言的创新性设计，而不是甩开工具花费大量时间去实现一个毫无新意的语言。

举个例子，上个学期这个编译器课程上出现了一门很有趣的语言，叫做W2W，就是穿什么（what to wear）。W2W用户要到根据衣橱服装生成的数据库中找衣服。她要写段W2W程序来描述她的穿衣风格。编译好的W2W程序读取第二天的天气预报，给出整套服装的建议。由于专注在语言的设计层面，这门课在哥伦比亚很受欢迎，每学期都会有100多名学生来上课。

在期末的时候，学生需要写项目报告，其中要包含"经验教训"这个章节。这个章节中最好的评述之一来自一位学生，他写下“在这门课程中，我们意识到自己的幼稚和自大，多年来对C语言有想当然的误解，深入类C语言的经历让我们认识到其中蕴含的价值，上此课真是个正确的决定。”

再说说操作系统。Unix系统是Dennis Ritchie和Ken Thompson一起编写的，它在操作系统中的影响力不亚于C语言在计算机语言社区中的影响力。引用1972年6月Dennis和Ken所说“...Unix的装机量达到10了，预期会更多。”今天有数以亿计的Unix系统在世界上工作，Unix也是每年数十亿美元的工业。今天用的主要非微软操作系统有Google的Android，Apple的OS X，无数版本的Linux和BSD，某种意义上说它们本质上都是Unix。公平的说，今天的全球信息网络基础设施，离开那些继承了Dennis和Ken发明的原始Unix的操作系统是不能运转的。

有人可能会问为什么Unix和C有着这么大的影响力。这不是因为同时期没有与他们竞争的操作系统和计算机语言。事实上，Ken在被要求停止Multics操作系统（贝尔实验室，通用电气，麻省理工联合开发）上的工作后，才在1969年写出了Unix第一版。那时C刚开始成长，美国国防部开始主持设计一门通用性的计算机语言ADA，面向所有的软件开发者。ADA只火了一阵子，现在只是苟延残喘，远不能与C的通用性或者说广泛性相比。

那到底为何Unix和C这么成功？这个问题已经有很多研究，我想它们成功的理由有不少。一个很重要的理由就是Bell实验室研究院的开明管理风格，它让科学家们投身于有前景的长期研究中，很少进行细枝末节的管控。另一个理由，个人觉得是最重要的一个，就是Dennis和Ken卓越的软件品位。当搞软件的第一次碰到或者读到Unix和C时，他们会有会心的感觉--“耶，操作系统就该这样子，系统级编程语言还能是别的样子么。”自从第一个小巧的实现可用后，他们迅速开始使用Unix和C，同时教同事和学生使用。第三个理由，Unix诞生于Unix工作室，那儿有一小群天才研究者与Dennis和Ken一起工作，他们贡献了很多创意和批评意见，重要的是用Unix系统本身去开发软件。

所以Unix和C的成功让其他系统的研究者感到沮丧和嫉妒也就不奇怪了。1989年Richard Gabriel写了一篇有着矛盾修辞题目的文章“坏就是好”，来解释为什么强调简单和弹性设计的Unix/C在市场上胜过了强调一致和完整性设计的MIT。Gabriel的“坏就是好”说明有时称为“新泽西风格”。在新泽西，我们更愿意说“小即美妙”。

当我在1967年首次加入贝尔实验室时，Richard Hamming，海明码的发明者，在第一个星期就来到我的办公室，跟我说”阿尔，要想成为伟大的科学家，不仅要做出好的成果，还要教会其他人用你的成果。“我想早期的优质可用的指南和手册也是Unix和C成功的关键理由。在Doug McIlroy的坚持下，早期的Unix系统拥有的在线手册让Unix很容易学习和使用。

接下来说说K&R。在顶尖的创造性软件开发者当中，Dennis是个优秀的科技作家，他能够将复杂的软件概念以简单清晰，生动的方式呈现给初学者。他和Brian Kernighan合著的书《The C Programming Language》我觉得不仅是学习编程语言也是学习编程的最好教科书。此书常简称为K&R。除了初步定义了C语言，它还教授初学者如何编写优雅可用的C程序，做到这些仅仅用了不到300页的篇幅。

我前面提到的编程语言及编译器课程也大大受益于K&R。作为语言实现成果的一部分，我要求每个小组的学生写一篇基于K&R第一章的指南，参照附录A写语言的参考手册。一旦我坚持让各小组在实现他们的语言之前先写指南和语言参考手册，就没有小组会在期末时交不出一个可用的编译器。

Dennis和Ken在编程语言和操作系统的深远贡献让他们获得了计算机科学的最高荣誉。1983年，Dennis和Ken赢得了ACM图灵奖，这是计算机科学的技术成就方面的最具声望的奖项。1998年，他们获得了美国总统克林顿授予的国家技术奖章，2011年获得信息与通信技术日本国际奖。

我向哥伦比亚大学的一个教员同事问过有没有一种计算机新科学发展的潜在影响力在计算机领域能够与Unix/C媲美，他说没有，唯一能想到的能有如此广泛的影响力的新事件就是彗星撞地球。

我很荣幸为Dennis说上几句来献上我的敬意。我发觉Dennis是个非常内向，谦逊的人。但只要跟他谈论起来，他的体贴，广泛的兴趣，亲切的举止会深深吸引你。

当2000年贝尔实验室在北京创立新研究实验室时，Dennis和我到几所中国高校进行讲演。在北京大学，Dennis做了Unix和C的演说，热情的学生观众挤破了教室，就像是来看摇滚巨星演出。讲演末尾，一个激动不已的学生问Dennis：您发明了Unix和C是很久以前的事情了，请问在那以后您还做出什么成果吗？Dennis毫不介意的回答：知道么，这是我第一次被问这个问题，我得考虑下这个问题的答案。

Dennis表达自己的见解时直言无忌。1994年有人写了“Unix痛恨者手册”，斥责了Gabriel的“坏就是好”哲学。Dennis为此书写了反击序言，结果真的被收录在这本书中。

Dennis的反击序言是这样结尾的“这是我的比喻：你们的书凉拌着各色合理见解。就像大便一样，这里都是些未消化的残余，供养那些以此为生的生物。它不是可口的甜饼：它散发着傲慢与嫉妒的恶臭。祝你们好胃口！”

Dennis还有着绝妙的讽刺幽默感。有一次他被问到：以你的经验，编程新手需要花多长时间才能真正成为熟练的C开发者并能写出重要的产品代码？

Dennis回答：我不知道。我从没去学过C。

对软件世界来说，Dennis就是天才。对有幸能够了解他的人，他是一个受人尊敬的智者。

Dennis，我们永远怀念你。

英文原文：

C, the Enduring Legacy of Dennis Ritchie
A tribute to the late Dennis Ritchie delivered at Dennis Ritchie Day at
Bell Labs, Murray Hill, NJ, September 7, 2012

We have gathered here today to pay tribute to the memory of Dennis Ritchie and to the farreaching contributions that he has made to society with his software.
Almost everyone has heard the word “software,” but relatively few people understand what
software really is, what it does, and how much of it there is. In my introductory computer science
courses at Columbia, I begin by asking students the question, How much software is used by the
world today? Take all of the software systems used by industry, governments, academia, and
society at large. Don’t count duplicate systems more than once. How many source lines of code
do you think were written to create all these systems?
After a while, some brave student puts up his hand and says “one million.” Then another student
says, “No, I think it’s a bit more than that – maybe ten million.” Then I mention that the Microsoft
Windows XP operating system alone is over 45 million source lines of code, and that I saw an
article a few years ago that estimated the SAP business application environment has over 250
million lines of code.
After a few more examples of large software systems, I finally say that no one has a precise
answer to this question, but I would estimate the world depends on at least one trillion lines of
source code. My reasoning goes something like this: assume that there are about 5 million
programmers in the world and that the productivity of an average industrial programmer is
somewhere between 2,500 and 5,000 lines of tested, documented code per year. So every year,
tens of billions of new lines of code are created. Since programmers have been writing software
for many decades, we can easily get to a total of many hundreds of billions of lines of source
code. And since we have great difficulty jettisoning old software, the legacy base just keeps
getting bigger and bigger.
Not only is society at large not aware of what software is and how much of it there is, society is
even more unaware of its great software creators. As an experiment, I googled the name “Dennis
MacAlistair Ritchie” and got 97,000 hits. For comparison, I googled “Justin Drew Bieber” and got
over 20 million hits.
To get a glimpse of the enormity of the impact that Dennis’s contributions have made to society, I
will just focus on his work on C and Unix. First, let’s recap a little bit of history. The language C
was created by Dennis in the early 1970s as part of his work with Ken Thompson on developing
the Unix operating system. Once C compilers became available, C rapidly became the language
of choice for creating software on Unix.
Within a few years C developed a life of its own as a general purpose language even outside of
the Unix system. For example, Microsoft implemented its Windows operating system using C. In
fact, many mission-critical software systems in the world today are written in C. You can’t make a
telephone call, fly in an airplane, or drive a car today without using Dennis’s inventions. One of
the most striking testaments to the enduring legacy of C was contained in a note I just received
from Gerard Holzmann who now works at NASA. Gerard said that NASA’s Curiosity Rover that
just landed in the Gale Crater on Mars with its spectacular sky-crane descent maneuver is
controlled by 3.8 million lines of ISO-standard C code. So it took just 40 years for Dennis’s
invention to go from the Unix room at Bell Labs to the Gale Crater on Mars.
Another measure of Dennis’s impact on software is the number of important new programming
languages created after C that are derivatives of C or that have been strongly influenced by C.

About a decade after Dennis invented C, Bjarne Stroustrup joined Bell Labs and created the C++
language by adding classes and object orientation to C. I think it is safe to say that many of the
most widely used software systems in the world today are written in C or C++, or a combination of
these two languages.
But C++ was not the only programming language that was influenced by C. The other very
popular languages of today – C#, Java, JavaScript, Objective-C, and PHP – were also strongly
shaped by C. In fact, I would venture to say that almost all of the major software systems used
by people in the world today have been written in C or languages influenced by C.
I might add that my own research and teaching interests in programming languages and
compilers have been heavily influenced by Dennis. As one example, in 1977 Brian Kernighan,
Peter Weinberger, and I developed a data-processing language that got to be known as Awk.
Awk programs are sequences of pattern-action statements – the patterns are boolean
combinations of regular expressions and numbers, and the actions are C-like statements.
Two other domain-specific languages had been created earlier at Bell Labs with a similar patternaction paradigm. In the mid 1970s, Michael Lesk and Eric Schmidt had developed the Lex
language for creating tools to analyze text and for building lexical analyzers for the front ends of
compilers. At about the same time Steve Johnson devised the Yacc language for creating
parsers for compilers and other language translators. Both Lex and Yacc use C statements to
specify semantic actions, and even after several decades these two tools are still the mainstay of
today’s compilers courses.
In my own programming languages and compilers course at Columbia I have students work in
teams of five where each team has to design and implement a new innovative programming
language. The teams produce interpreters for their languages using Lex and Yacc. Since it is
easy to produce a working compiler with these tools, the students can focus on the creative
aspects of language design, rather spending their time implementing a more mundane language
without compiler tools.
An example of one of the more interesting languages produced in my compilers course last
semester is a language called W2W, for what to wear. A W2W programmer enters into a
database the clothes she has in her closet. She then writes a W2W program describing her
fashion style. The compiled W2W program reads the weather report for the next day and
suggests outfits for the person to wear. Because the focus of the course is on language design,
this course has become very popular at Columbia, attracting over 100 students each semester.
At the end of the course, students need to write a project report that includes a section entitled
“Lessons Learned.” One of the most telling comments ever included in this section was made by
a student who wrote “During this course we realized how naive and overambitious we were, and
we gained a newfound respect for the work and good decisions that went into languages like C
which we’ve taken for granted for years.”
Let’s turn our attention now to operating systems. The Unix system that was codeveloped by
Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson has been as influential in the operating systems world as C
has been in the programming languages community. In June 1972 Dennis and Ken were quoted
as saying, “... the number of Unix installations has grown to 10, with more expected.” Today
there are hundreds of millions of Unix systems in use around the world and Unix is a multibilliondollar-a-year industry. The major non-Microsoft operating systems in use today such as Google’s
Android, Apple’s OS X, and the countless versions of Linux and BSD, all have some kind of Unix
at their cores. It is fair to say that today’s global information networking infrastructure would not
work without the systems that have been derived from Dennis and Ken’s original Unix.
One might ask why did Unix and C have so much influence. It is not because there weren’t any
competing systems or languages at that time. In fact, the first version of Unix was created by Ken

in 1969 as a consequence of him being asked to stop working on the Multics operating system
that was being developed jointly by Bell Labs, GE, and MIT in the 1960s. At the time C was
growing up, the DOD launched a major initiative to create a general purpose programming
language christened ADA for all of its software developers to use. ADA flowered for a while and is
still in use today but did not end up being as hardy or as ubiquitous as C.
So why did Unix and C become so successful? This question has been studied a lot and I think
there are many reasons for their success. One important reason is the enlightened management
style that existed in Bell Labs Research that allowed scientists to pursue promising long-term
research efforts with little micromanagement. Another reason, and in my opinion the single most
significant reason, is the good taste that Dennis and Ken had for software. When software people
encountered or read about Unix and C for the first time, they had an “aha” experience – they said
“yes, that’s exactly how an operating system and a systems programming language should be
done.” And since the initial implementations were small and readily available, they immediately
started using Unix and C, and teaching their colleagues and students how to use Unix and C. A
third reason is that Unix was born in the forge of the Unix room where a small number of
extremely talented researchers worked together with Dennis and Ken, and contributed ideas and
critiques and most importantly used the Unix system itself to create software as it was being
developed.
It is not surprising that the popularity and success of Unix and C frustrated some other systems
researchers and attracted some envy. In 1989 Richard Gabriel wrote an essay with the
oxymoronic title “Worse is Better” trying to explain why the Unix/C approach with its emphasis on
simplicity and flexibility was trumping in the marketplace the MIT approach with its emphasis on
consistency and completeness. Gabriel’s “Worse is Better” oxymoron was sometimes called “NJ
style.” In NJ we preferred to say “Small is beautiful.”
When I first joined Bell Labs in 1967, Richard Hamming, the inventor of Hamming codes, came
into my office in the first week I was there and said, “Al, in order to be a great scientist you not
only have to do good work, you also have to teach others how to use your work.” I think the early
availability of good tutorials and manuals is another key reason why Unix and C became so
successful. At the insistence of Doug McIlroy, the early Unix systems had on-line manual pages
making the system much easier to learn and use.
And then there is K&R. On top of being a creative software developer, Dennis was a superb
technical writer who could explain complex software ideas simply, clearly, and often eloquently to
beginners. His book “The C Programming Language” written with Brian Kernighan is in my
opinion the finest textbook not only on a programming language but also on programming in
general. It is known in the field simply as K&R. In addition to being the initial definition of the C
programming language, it taught beginners how to write elegant, useful C programs -- all in under
300 pages.
My programming languages and compilers course that I mentioned earlier has benefitted greatly
from K&R. As part of the language implementation effort, I ask each team of students to write a
tutorial for their language based on Chapter 1 of K&R and a language reference manual
patterned after Appendix A. Once I started insisting that the teams create tutorials and language
reference manuals before they start implementing their languages, never has a team failed to
deliver a working compiler by the end of the semester.
Dennis and Ken’s far-reaching contributions to programming languages and operating systems
have been rewarded with the highest honors a computer scientist can earn. In 1983 Dennis and
Ken won the ACM Turing Award, the most prestigious award for technical achievement in
computer science. In 1990 they were awarded the National Medal of Technology by President Bill
Clinton, and in 2011 the Japan Prize for Information and Communications.

I asked a fellow faculty member at Columbia if he could think of any new computer science
development that could potentially have the same impact as Unix and C have had on computing.
He said no, the only new thing he could think of that would have the same widespread impact
would be a comet hitting the earth.
I would like to conclude my tribute to Dennis by saying a few words about Dennis the man. I
found Dennis to be a very private, humble individual. But whenever I talked with him, he was
always a peach of a person: caring, broad in his interests, and gracious in his behavior.
When Bell Labs opened a research lab in Beijing, China in the year 2000, Dennis and I went on a
speaking tour to a few Chinese universities. At Peking University in Beijing, Dennis gave a talk on
Unix and C to an overflow audience of enthusiastic students who treated him like a rock star. At
the end of his talk, a perhaps over-enthusiastic student asked Dennis: Well a long time ago, you
did Unix and C. What have you done since then? Without malice, Dennis replied: You know, this
is the first time I’ve been asked that question. I’ll have to think about the answer.
Dennis was not averse to expressing his opinions forcefully and candidly. In 1994 a book called
the Unix-Haters Handbook was written that screeched Gabriel’s Worse is Better philosophy.
Dennis wrote an anti-forward for this book which was actually included in the back of the book.
Dennis’s epilogue ends: Here is my metaphor: your book is a pudding stuffed with apposite
observations, many well-conceived. Like excrement, it contains enough undigested nuggets of
nutrition to sustain life for some. But it is not a tasty pie: it reeks too much of contempt and of
envy. Bon appetit!
Dennis also had a deliciously wry sense of humor. He was once asked: In your experience, how
long does it take for a novice programmer to become a reasonably proficient C developer capable
of writing nontrivial production code?
Dennis replied: I don’t know. I never had to learn C.
To the software world, Dennis was a genius. To those who were privileged to know him, he was
a mensch.
Dennis, we all miss you.
Alfred V. Aho
Lawrence Gussman Professor
Department of Computer Science
Columbia University

英文来自：C,the Enduring Legacy of Dennis Ritchie

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